| Historical | 
| Sketch 
Missions * 
India 2 


By Rev. C. A. R. Janvier 
a oc 


SIXTH EDITION, REVISED 


UNDER THE CARE 
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Witherspoon Building, 
Philadelphia =: 1912 


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Sketch 


Missions * 
India . .2 


By Rev. C. A. R. Janvier 


SIXTH EDITION, REVISED 


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Witherspoon Building, 
Philadelphia : 1912 


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INDIA. 
THE LAND AND ITS PEOPLE. 


India is geographically the Italy of the Asiatic continent. 
Historically, too, she is Italy’s counterpart in at least one 
respect. What the one, with her bountiful streams and sun- 
lit plains, was to the conquering adventurers from northern 
Europe, that was the other to the successive hordes of hardy 
invaders, who, looking across at her fertile plains from the 
bleak table-lands of Central Asia, swept over her mountain 
barriers and took possession of her treasures. Kolarian, 
Dravidian, Aryan, Persian, Grecian, Bactrian, Parthian, 
Scythian, Hun and Afghan, Tatar and Mongolian—all these 
and others have had their share of India’s spoils, some scarce 
more than touching her borders, others leaving their per- 
manent impress on her life and character. 

He is a rash man who would attempt to tell the exact details 
of these successive invasions. The Kolarians, as exemplified 
to-day in the Santals,t for instance, are often spoken of as 
aborigines ; but the probability is that the real aborigines were 
Negritos, specimens of which race are still to be found in 
the Andaman Islands, and that the Kolarians were themselves 
invaders, coming through the northeast passes. The northwest 
passes were thereafter the way of access, the first to use them 
being the Dravidians. The when and the whence of their 
movement no one knows, though it may be safe to include 
them under the general name Turanian. 

Next came the Aryans. From their original home, probably 
in the region south of the Aral Sea, they had divided into two 
great streams, one flowing northward and westward to people 
the European continent, and the other pouring southward, and 
subdividing into Iranian (Persian) and Indian branches. The 
time of the movement into India is a matter of conjecture. 
History there is none. The sole literature of the period is the 
Rig-Veda, from the hymns of which only the vaguest con- 
clusions can be drawn. Dates varying from one another by a 
thousand years or more have been assigned by various writers. 


1The Encyclopedia Britannica regards the Dravidians as aborigines, including 
the Bhils, Santals, etc., among them, but-its statements are not wholly consistent 
with each other. Some authorities have pointed to similarities between certain 
Dravidian dialects and modern Korean. 

2Mr. Tisdall, reasoning from a comparison of the Rig-Veda with the Avesta, 
fixes upon a date as late as 1500 B. C. “India: Its History, Darkness and Dawn,” 


Dy 2. 


4 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


It is probably safe, however, to place the beginning of the 
Aryan invasion not later than B. C. 2000. 

The word sindhu, the Sanscrit for “stream” or “flood,” was 
probably the name given by the Aryans themselves to the first 
great river they reached in their south-eastward progress. 
From this name, Sindhu, Hind or Indus, come both India and 
Hindustan, the one through the Greek and the other through 
the Persian. The two are generally used synonymously, but 
Hindustan is more precisely applicable—and is applied by the 
people themselves to-day—to the northern half of the penin- 
sula, the valleys of the Indus and the Ganges; while India is 
now often made to take in the entire Indian Empire, including 
Burmah. 

The invasion of India by the Aryans was not a sudden in- 
road, but a long continued movement. Resting first on the 
Indus, the invaders gradually spread eastward, everywhere 
pushing back their predecessors, whom they called dasyus 
(enemies or ruffans). They counted these dark-skinned say- 
ages as little better than wild beasts, whom it was a virtue to 
destroy. The Dasyus, however, were not all uncivilized. Some 
had forts and cities, and no small wealth. But they could not 
stand before the Aryans. Those who were not slain were 
either reduced to a position akin to slavery, or forced further 
and further back to the south and west. This process con- 
tinued through perhaps eight or ten centuries, till the Aryans 
had overspread the whole of northern India, to Behar on 
the east and the Vindhya Hills on the south. This region they 
called Arya-varta; all beyond was Mlechha-desa, “the land of 
the unclean.” 

Then began a somewhat different movement toward the 
south, more a colonization than a complete conquest. “It 
was,” to quote a recent writer,® “a social rather than an ethnical 
revolution. The aborigines were not hunted down, nor even 
dispossessed of the land, but, coming under the influence of a 
stronger race, they learned to adopt its civilization and religion. 

In the mixed race that arose, the preponderating ele- 
ment was naturally the Dravidian. The mass of the people 
continued to use their own tongue then, as they still do, in 
Southern India.” 

The dawn of real history is to be reckoned from the invasion 
by Darius Hystaspes (about 500 B. C.), who probably ex- 


3C. F. de la Fosse, ‘‘History of India,” p. 20. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. : 5 


tended his conquest almost to the borders of Rajputana. Still 
later comes the first unquestioned date, 327 B. C., when Alex- 
ander the Great conquered Porus, the greatest of the Aryan 
over-lords of that time, and carried the Grecian standards as 
far as the Sutlej. He again established no permanent control; 
and yet the contact between Greece and India was not without 
its influence on the philosophy of the former and the science 
and art of the latter. 

Seleucus I., of the Graeco-Bactrian line, succeeded in form- 
ing an alliance with Chandragupta, who as King of Magadha 
(approximately the modern Behar and Oudh), had extended 
his dominion over the entire Panjab. Second in succession 
to Chandragupta was his grandson, Asoka the Great, the 
famous Buddhist king, who extended his beneficent sway over 
almost the whole of India (B. C. 263-223). 

During the next nine or ten centuries there were invasions 
by the Graeco-Bactrians, the Parthians, and the Scythians, 
the last-named continuing their inroads well into the Christian 
era, and making a permanent impression on the life of the 
country. Next followed the Huns, who, under their dread 
leader, Toroman, came near shattering the Aryan power. 
Toroman’s death and the defeat of his son Mihirakula by 
Yasodharman, King of Ujjain (Central India), delivered the 
land from this devastating influence (533 A. D.). Soon after 
this there came to power the Rajput race, who claimed to be 
Aryans of the Kshattriya or Warrior caste. Warriors they 
were, but probably of Scythian,* not Aryan, origin. Their 
ascendancy brought with it the fall of Buddhism and restora- 
tion of Hinduism. 

But already in the northwest were heard the first mutter- 
ings of the storm of Mohammedan invasion that was to over- 
whelm the Hindu power. First came the Arabs, who made 
desultory inroads during the seventh century, conquered and 
occupied Sindh during a part of the eighth, but were finally 
repelled by the Rajputs ‘early in the ninth. Meanwhile, how- 
ever, another Moslem power, of Tatar or Turkish origin,® with 
Ghazni in Afghanistan as its capital, had risen to prominence ; 
and in the closing years of the tenth century, Sabaktagin, fol- 
lowed later by his more famous son, Mahmud of Ghazni, 
swept over the Panjab, establishing what is known as the 


4See de la Fosse’s ‘History of India,” pp. 58, 59. 
5 Ratzel’s “History of Mankind,” p. 361. 


6 : HISTORICAL’ SKETCH “OF 


Pathan (or Afghan) Empire, whose various dynasties covered 
the next five hundred years. It was a period of almost continu- 
ous warfare. Not only did the Afghans find formidable op- 
ponents in the Rajpttts and other Hindu neighbors to the 
south, but they soon had to begin to deal with the inroads of 
the all-conquering Mughuls or Mongols, the third set of Mos- 
lem invaders of India. First came the ‘World-stormer,” 
Chengiz Khan, who, early in the thirteenth century, pierced 
as far as Peshawar, and then turned back into Afghanistan. 
Nearly a century later Timur, or Tamerlane, of the same 
fierce race, carried his conquest as far as Delhi; and Babar 
early in the sixteenth century conquered the entire Panjab, and 
later almost the whole of Northern India. The three most 
famous emperors in this Mughul line are Akbar the Great 
(1556-1605), who extended his empire through Bengal and 
Orissa on the east and Birar on the south, and who, though 
he overthrew the Rajputs, the great defenders of Hinduism, 
yet by his conciliatory statesmanship gained the friendship of 
the Hindus; Shah Jahan (1627-1658), under whom the Mos- 
lem Empire reached the zenith of its glory—not unfitly marked 
by the erection at Agra of that triumph of architectural skill, 
the T’aj Mahal; and Aurungzeb (1658-1707), whose long reign 
ended in general disorder and the partial return of the Hindus 
to power, the Mahrattas coming to the front in the south and — 
the Sikhs in the north. 

Meanwhile a new and potent factor in India’s development 
was beginning to make itself felt. The East India Company, 
chartered by Queen Elizabeth in 1600, had by the end of 
Aurungzeb’s reign already grown, largely under the force of 
circumstances beyond its control, from a quiet trading concern 
into a complex civil and military organization, with prosperous 
fort-protected towns at Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. While 
the Mahrattas were humbling the Mughuls in the north, the 
English overcame in the south their rivals, the French, allied 
with the Nizam of Hyderabad (battle of Plassey, 1757). The 
issue between the Mahrattas and the English was settled by 
the great victory of Assai (September, 1803); and the Sikhs 
in their turn were vanquished in the wars of 1846 and 1848, 
petals the British in possession of practically the whole of 
ndia. 

Next came the awful mutiny of 1857. The Sepoys, the 
trusted native troops of the East India Company, rose in re- 
bellion in almost all the military centres of Northern India, 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 7 


taking as their pretext the serving out of a cartridge supposed 
to be greased with the fat of cows and pigs. Had the upris- 
ings been simultaneous and under the control of leaders of 
capacity, India would have had to be reconquered. But the 
natives had no real generals, while the handful of British were 
led by such men as Havelock, Outram, Colin Campbell and 
Nicholson. The sieges of Cawnpore and Lucknow, the one 
ending in massacre and the other in final relief, are only paral- 
leled in thrilling interest by the heroic storming of Delhi— 
7,000 in the open against 50,000 behind massive stone walls. 
The end was complete victory for the British. But the East 
India Company was dissolved (1858), and the administration 
of the country was transferred to the Crown—an act which 
led up to the formal proclamation, in 1877, of Victoria as Em- 
press of India. 

Whatever may be said of the not infrequent blunders, in- 
trigues and excesses which marked the early history of the 
East India Company, or even of some of the methods em- 
ployed in the period of its more firm administration through 
Governor-generals (beginning with Warren Hastings in 1774), 
there can be no question as to the general character of British 
rule since the mutiny. It has been enlightened, uncorrupt and 
truly altruistic. Never have taxes in India been less oppressive, 
nor the benefits given in return more generous. Schools, tele- 
graphs, railroads, unsurpassed postal facilities, all speak for 
themselves. The fruit is the loyalty of the feudatory princes 
and of a large proportion of the enlightened classes, and the 
passive acquiescence of the masses. No one who knows India 
at first hand, however he may criticise some features of the 
government’s policy, can question the general beneficence of 
British rule.® 

The attitude of the authorities toward Christianity has 
varied greatly at different periods. Carey, when he first 
reached India (1793), was not only forbidden to enter British 
territory for missionary purposes, but not allowed to remain 
even as an indigo-planter, and had to begin his work in Danish 
possessions (Serampore) near Calcutta. Opposition reached 
its climax after Lord Wellesley’s resignation (1805), when 
the Court of Directors of the East India Company frankly 


6 The progress in material things is hinted at by the following figures: Rail- 
ways in India, end of ’53, 20 miles; end of ’77, 7,322 miles; in 1909, 31,490 
miles. In ’81, 20,346 miles of telegraph line in operation, and a little over 1,000,000 
private messages despatched; in 1910, 72,746 miles, with 12,084,697 messages. 


8 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


avowed their advocacy of Indian heathenism and took the 
ground that missions threatened the security of the Indian 
Government.’ In 1813, however, Parliament, moved by the 
untiring efforts of Wilberforce and others, inserted in the re- 
newed charter of the Company the so-called “pious clause,’’* 
which put an end to all open opposition to missionary enter- 
prise, friendliness or unfriendliness being thereafter a matter 
of the attitude of the individual officer, local or supreme. The 
final stage was reached in the famous proclamation of complete 
religious toleration issued by Queen Victoria at the time of the 
assumption of the government of India by the crown (No- 
vember Ist, 1857). This proclamation, while it guaranteed 
protection to all the Queen’s subjects in the fulfillment of their 
religious convictions and promised absolute neutrality on the 
part of Government in all such matters, was essentially a Chris- 
tian document,? one paragraph being prefaced with these 
words: “Firmly relying ourselves on the truth of Christianity, 
and acknowledging with gratitude the solace of religion.” The 
following out of the policy thus proclaimed still depends some- 
what upon the bias of the individual officer; but on the whole 
the government’s attitude has been one of friendly neutrality 
toward Christianity. 

Turning to some of the geographical features of the coun- 
try: British India, inclusive of Burmah, has an area of 1,560,- 
159 square miles (595,167 square miles of this is the territory 
of the feudatory states, such as Hyderabad, Gwalior, Baroda, 
etc.), being about as large as the United States east of the 
Mississippi. It lies mainly between ten and thirty-five north 
latitude. The whole is tropical or semi-tropical, variations of 
temperature depending on altitude rather than on latitude. 
The only places of escape from the heat of summer are the 
various sanatoria, 4,500 to 9,000 feet above sea level on the 
different mountain ranges. The climate from November to 
March is delightful, not unlike an American October. The 
rest of the year is divided between the dry hot season and the 
rainy hot season, the thermometer during the former often 


™Warneck, “‘History of Protestant Missions,” Dee 252) ois 

8 The clause is as follows: “It is the duty of this country to encourage the in- 
troduction of useful knowledge and of religious and moral enlightenment into 
India, and in lawful ways to afford every facility to such persons as go to India 
and desire to remain there for the accomplishment of such benevolent purposes.”” 


® See Graham’s “Missionary Expansion of the Reformed Churches,”’ p, .108. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 2) 


registering 110° to 125° in the shade.t The intensity of the 
heat, however, is far less trying than its persistency. 

The soil is exceedingly fertile in most parts of the country, 
yielding, in spite of crudest methods of cultivation, large and 
frequent crops (three and four in a single year in some cases). 
The main products are wheat, rice, cotton, opium, oil-seeds, 
tea, indigo and (in the north) potatoes. The staple diet in the 
southern and eastern regions is rice; in the north, wheat for 
the upper classes, and corn, barley and the coarse millets for 
the poorer. Meat is a part of the regular diet of such Moham- 
medans and Christians as can afford it; it is not uncommon, 
especially goat’s meat, among some classes of Hindus. 

The population, as given by the census of IQITI, is 313,523,- 
981, which includes Aden as well as Burmah, but excludes 
Ceylon, which has about four million. 

The sketch of the early history of India has in some meas- 
ure indicated the diversity of the race elements which make 
up its population. The languages in use give even greater 
evidence of this diversity. Investigation in 1901 by a Govern- 
ment expert (Mr. Grierson) revealed the existence of no less 
than 707 languages and dialects. Some of these differ far 
more widely from each other than they do from the languages 
of Europe. They fall in general into four groups: Semitic, 
Aryan, Dravidian and Kolarian. Those of the last group are 
spoken only by aboriginal hill tribes. The main Dravidian 
languages are Tamil (spoken by upwards of 15,000,000) ; 
Telugu (20,000,000) ; Kanarese (10,000,000), and Malayalam 
(5,000,000). The Aryan group includes among many others 
Bengali (41,000,000) ; Hindi (85,000,000); Panjabi (18,000,- 
000); Gujrati (10,000,000), and Uriya (9,000,000). Hin- 
dustani or Urdu is usually classed with this group, but might 
more properly be called an Aryo-Semitic language. It is a 
most curious linguistic hybrid, having been produced by In- 
dia’s Mohammedan conquerors, who forced Hindi into com- 
bination with Persian and Arabic. It is the most widely dif- 
fused language of India, being spoken, or at least understood, 
not only by most of those who speak Panjabi or Hindi, but by 
almost all Mohammedans the country over. It is safe to say 
that nearly half the population of India can be reached through 
it and Hindi, its next of kin. 


1 Here is a day’s record for Allahabad, taken entirely at random from the 
period (March 28th) between the cool and the hot seasons: Maximum temperature, 
in shade, 106.4; maximum, in sun, 159.6; minimum, in shade, 69; mean tempera- 
ture, 87.1; normal mean temperature, 81.3. 


10 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 


In the world’s history there have been two great birth-cen- 
tres of religion, Palestine-Arabia and India. The latter has 
produced faiths which are affecting the life of more than two- 
thirds of the human race; for Hinduism moulds India and 
Buddhism touches the whole Mongolian world. But, to quote 
the language of another,” “India’s history has been a record of 
brilliant prospects and blighted hopes. Some of the hymns 
of the Rig-Veda gave promise of an ethical monotheism almost 
as high as that of the Old Testament prophets. But the vision 
of God soon passed, and the penitential note, sounded in its 
hymns to Varuna, was heard no more.” In most non-Christian 
countries Christianity has to face either Buddhism or Islam 
alone; but in India it faces the three most powerful anti- 
Christian faiths in the world. The decisive battle of the 
ages is to be fought and won on India’s soil. Let us look 
in detail upon the main forces in the line of battle. 

I. Anitmism.—The religion of the aborigines of India seems 
to have been animism or spirit-worship—the spirits being evil 
spirits. All natural phenomena, and especially all untoward 
events, were referred to the agency of these demons, who were 
propitiated by incantations and bloody sacrifices. It is exceed- 
ingly difficult to draw the line accurately between Animists and 
Hindus to-day; for the worship of the latter has been largely 
modified by the beliefs of the former, and the former have in 
many cases added to their demon worship the polytheism and 
idolatry of the latter, and have often actually classed them- 
selves as Hindus.* The census of 1911 gives the number as 
10,295,168. 

II. Buppuism, though it does not come next chrono- 
logically, may be disposed of at this point because of its present 
numerically insignificant position among the religions of India. 
It has now only 10,721,449 adherents, and of these all but 
330,870 are in Burmah. Siddharta Gautama,‘ its founder, son 
of Suddodhana, King of the Sakyas, was born about 560 B. C., 
at Kapilavastu, a hundred miles north of Benares. Burdened 


? Rev. H. D. Griswold, Ph. D. 

_ 3 It is related by a missionary of the Madras Presidency that in one village the , 
Animists adopted the suggestion of Hindu neighbors and married their female 
demons to Hindu gods, and thereafter complacently worshipped them all. 

_*Gautama was the family name, Siddharta the personal. Buddha means “the 
enlightened.”’ He was also called Sakya Muni, “the sage of the Sakyas.” 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. Il 


with the sense of life’s sorrows and mysteries, he turned his 
back on worldly prospects, and after years of vain searching 
for peace by means of Hindu asceticism, he finally attained 
“enlightenment,” and propounded the basal doctrine of his 
system, that “suffering is to be got rid of by the suppression 
of all desires and by extinction of personal existence.” Prin- 
cipal Grant, in “The Religions of the World,’ well describes 
Buddhism as “a system of humanitarianism with no future 
life, and no God higher than the perfect man.” It won its 
way to power partly because it was the logical outcome of cer- 
tain phases of philosophic Hinduism, and still a desperately 
needed protest against its utter formalism and the tyranny of 
its priests, and partly because of the attractiveness of its moral 
code and its comparatively unselfish teachings.® 

Buddhism reached its zenith under the Emperor Asoka 
(263-223 B. C.), its “golden age” continuing till toward the 
end of the reign of Kanishka, one of the Indo-Scythian Kings, 
who came to the throne in 78 A. D. Thenceforward Brahman 
influence gradually regained its place, till by the end of the 
tenth century it had practically driven Buddhism out of India, 
confining it, as now, to Ceylon and Burmah. It is not to be 
forgotten, however, that with all its inadequacy, it was the first 
missionary religion in the world’s history. 

III. JaArtnism® is nearly related to Buddhism, arising at 
the same period (possibly an earlier) and out of the same con- 
ditions. Like it, it is practically atheistic. Its moral code is 
closely allied to that of Buddha, and consists of five prohibi- 
tions (against killing, lying, stealing, adultery and worldliness) 
and five duties (mercy to animate beings, alms-giving, fasting, 
and veneration for sages while living and worship of their 
images when dead). Its most conspicuous feature is its zeal 
for the preservation of animal life. Its adherents, though num- 
bering only about a million and a half (mainly in Bombay 
Presidency), have no small influence, because of their wealth 
and comparatively high degree of education. 

IV. Hinpuism.—To give a brief and yet complete account 
of Hinduism is an impossibility. To give an authoritative ac- 
count of it, no matter at what length, is equally an impossibil- 
ity. It is difficult to find any two writers—especially any two 
Hindu writers—who agree in their statement of even its es- 
sential features. Not only has it been constantly changing 


5 See sketch in St. Clair Tisdall’s “Religions of India,” pp. 66-76. 
® See Murdoch’s ‘Religious History of India 7, Din Sate 


12 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


through the centuries, always for the worse, but at no time 
has it been the same in different parts of India, nor even self- 
consistent in any one part. The most that can be done here 
is to outline the development of its complex system, and to 
present some of the more conspicuous of its modern char- 
acteristics. 


As a preliminary, a brief statement as to the sacred books of the 
Hindus is necessary. These are classed under the two heads Sruti' 
(“that which has been heard” from the Divine voice), the fully authori- 
tative, and Smriti (“that which is remembered”), less authoritative 
writings, based upon the Sruti. To the former class belong the Vedas 
alone. These are four in number: Rig, Sama, Yajur (the Black and 
the White) and Atharva; and each consists of three parts, Hymns 
(Sanhita or Mantra), Ritual (Brahmana) and Philosophical Treatises 
(Upanishad, included with Aranyaka or “Forest Treatises”). The San- 
hitas are the oldest portion (variously placed by different authorities 
between the dates 1800 and 800 B. C.),° and consist of versified prayers 
and praises; the Brahmanas come next (falling approximately between 
goo and 500 B. C.), and are commentaries, mostly in prose, explaining 
how the Mantras (Sanhita) are to be used in the performance of 
religious rites; and last come the Aranyakas and Upanishads (the 
earliest of them probably dating from about 600 B. C.), consisting of 
philosophical inquiries on religious themes, ostensibly based on the 
Mantras. The term Veda is sometimes applied exclusively to the 
Hymns, and yet, as Dr. Murdoch well says (“Letter to Maharaja of 
Darbhangah,” p. 19), not only are the Brahmanas and Upanishads as 
much Sruti as the Mantras, but the Upanishads “are practically the only 
Veda studied by thoughtful Hindus of the present day.” 

The term Smriti is more elastic, its content varying more or less 
with the view-point of the individual sect of Hindus; but it may be 
said to include among other books the following: 

I. The Darsanas or systematized “exhibitions” of the philosophy of 
the Upanishads. These are six in number, each serving as the basis 
of a separate philosophical sect: Nydya, Vaiseshika, Sankhya, Yoga, 
Mimadnsa and Veddnta. Their date it is impossible to fix with exact- 
ness, further than to say that they are probably contemporary with the 
rise of Buddhism. 

II. The Laws of Manu, or Mdénava Dharma Shdstra, a treatise on 
religious jurisprudence, bearing somewhat the same relation to the 
Brahmanas as the Darsanas do to the Upanishads, and belonging to 
Hes aks between 500 and 300 B. C. (Other similar treatises followed 
ater ; 

Ilf. The Epic poems, Ramayana and Mahdbharata, which include 
legends of a remote age, but may in their present form safely be placed 
in the early centuries of the Christian era.” 


‘See Mitchell’s “Hinduism, Past and Present,” p. 13, ff. 
§ The Atharva Veda is probably of much later date. 
; at W. W. Hunter’s “Brief History,” etc., p. 66; Mitchell’s “Hinduism,” p. 
2, 

1 Dr. Mitchell places the Maéhdbhérata in its present form in the sixth or seventh 
century, A, D. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. a3 


IV. The eighteen Purdnas, a kind of versified encyclopedia of 
religion, philosophy, science and history, belonging in their collated 
form, to the period between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries, A. D. 

V. The Tantras, somewhat similar to the Purdnas, but belonging 


probably to a slightly later period, and setting forth the principles of 
Sakti worship. (See p. 16.) 


The stages in the development of Hinduism are marked 
by these religious books. The stages overlap as the writings 
overlap ; their chronology is as wholly uncertain as that of the 
writings. In general, however, the following successive de- 
velopments are traceable: 


1. VeEpIc HinpuIsmM (1800 to 800 B. C.), exhibited es- 
pecially in the Rig-Veda. It was polytheistic nature worship. 
“Thrice eleven” deities are frequently mentioned; once (III, 
9, 9), we have a much larger number. The most prominent 
were Varuna (Greek Ouranos), the encompassing firmament ; 
Indra, the thunder god; Agmi, the god of fire; Surya, the sun 
god, and Dyaus Pitar, who is unquestionably the relic of an 
early monotheism, and of whom Prof. Max Muller forcibly 
says: 


If I were asked what I consider the most important discovery which 
has been made during the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient 
history of mankind, I should answer by the following short line: 

Sanskrit Dyaush-Pitar — Greek Zeus Pater — Latin Jupiter — Old 
Norse 7 yr. 

Think what this equation implies! It implies not only that our 
own ancestors and the ancestors of Homer and Cicero (the Greeks and 
Romans) spoke the same language as the people of India—this is a 
discovery which, however incredible it sounded at first, has long ceased 
to cause any surprise—but it implies and proves that they all had once 
the same faith, and worshipped for a time the same supreme Deity 
under exactly the same name—name which meant Heaven-Father. 


The following extracts well exemplify two extremes in the 
hymns of the Rig-V eda: 


“Drinker of the soma juice (Indra), wielder of the thunderbolt, 
bestow upon us abundance of cows with projecting jaws.” 

“Whenever we men, O Varuna, commit an offence before the 
héavenly host; whenever we break thy law through thoughtlessness ; 
have mercy, Almighty, have mercy!” 


2. BRAHMANIC HinpuIsM * (900 to 500 B. C.).—As time 
passed the number of the gods greatly increased. Fear of 


2 The term Bruhmanism is to be avoided, partly because it is a word never used 
by any one in India to describe his own religion, partly because it is inaccurate, 
there being no such thing as Brahmanism distinct from Hinduism, and partly 
because its very derivation is doubtful, (Brahm, Brahman or Brahmana). 


14 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


evil spirits became conspicuous, perhaps under the influence 
of aboriginal cults. Religion began to be stereotyped. For- 
mulas took the place of worship, and the influence of those 
who learned and repeated them increased accordingly. Suc- 
cess in dealing with supernatural powers depended upon the 
proper selection of mdntras and absolute accuracy in their 
repetition. The very formulas themselves were deified. The 
literary fruit of this development was the Brahmanas of the 
Vedas and later the code of Manu; and its main religio- 
social fruit was the supremacy of the priest class (the Brah- 
mans) and the organization of the caste system. This was 
beyond doubt primarily a matter of race (as hinted in the 
original word for caste, varna, color). Aryans separated 
themselves from the despised non-Aryans and from those of 
mixed parentage. At the same time they divided off among 
themselves according to their occupations, which naturally 
tended to become hereditary. Priests (Brahman), warriors 
(Kshattriya) and tillers of the soil (Vaisya) formed each their 
own caste; and gradually, though not without a struggle, which 
between the Brahmans and Kshattriyas seems to have been a 
bitter and bloody one, they established the above order of 
priority. To the non-Aryans, who made up the Sidra caste, 
were left all the trades and menial service.? Just as the Hindu 
religious writings contain no less than fourteen different ac- 
counts:as to the source of the Vedas, so do they offer a gen- 
erous choice regarding the origin of caste. The most com- 
monly accepted view is that set forth by Manu (Bk. I., 31) 
that Brahma, the parent of worlds, after his birth from a 
golden egg, peopled the earth by producing the Brahman from 
his mouth, the Kshattriya from his arms, the V’aisya from his 
thighs, and the Stidra from his feet.° Whatever the origin of 
the system, of the Brahman’s complete and permanent su- 
premacy—amounting to deification—there can be no question. 


3. PurLosopHic Hinputsm (600 B. C., to Christian Era). 
The inevitable reaction from the elaborate ritual, the empty 
formalism, the endless and meaningless sacrifices of Brahmanic 


% See de la Fosse’s “History of India,” pp. 11, 12, an r ’s “Religi 
History obatndias’. pease ook Ke iN ee a a ae 

*See Murdoch’s “Letter to the Maharaja of Darbhangah,” p. so, ff. 

® Caste has been subdivided until the four original castes now number many 
thousands. It is estimated that the Brahman caste alone is divided into 1,866 sub- 
castes. The lower castes are still more complex. Hindu custom forbids inter- 
course between persons of different castes. The touch and often the shadow of a 


low-caste man defiles. The Brahmans from different provinces in many cases will 
not eat together. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 15 


Hinduism came in the wave of philosophic speculations which 
produced first the Upanishads and then the six Darsanas pro- 
fessedly based on them. The thought of this period was 
mainly pantheistic, though in one or other of these six schools 
we have apparent affirmations of atheism, polytheism and 
even monotheism. In the Brahmanic period the way of de- 
liverance had been the karma-mdrg or “path of works (or 
ritual)”; in the philosophic it was the jndnd-mdrg or “way 
of knowledge.” To know one’s identity with the true, in- 
finite and eternal self,° this was salvation. Transmigration of 
souls had come now to be an essential feature of Hindu 
thought,’ and the one idea of:salvation was that of deliverance 
from endless rebirths (8,400,000 is the popular conception). The 
six systems professing to set forth this way of deliverance, 
though all appealing to the Vedas, and all accepted to this day 
as wholly orthodox, were utterly opposed one to another. The 
Bhagavad Gita, that remarkable production which comes as an 
obvious interpolation in the great epic, the Mdhdbharata, is an 
attempt to harmonize three of these systems, and belongs 
properly to Philosophic Hinduism, though in a later stage. 


4. PurAnic Hinpuism (A. D. 1 to 1700).—The char- 
acteristics of the successive stages of this period are to be 
traced in the two great Epic poems, and in the Purduas and 
the Tdntras. During the centuries of Buddhist supremacy the 
Hinduism of the masses, partly under the accentuated in- 
fluence of southern India and its Dravidian cults, partly pos- 
sibly through the deliberate purpose of the Brahmans to offset 
the power of Buddhism by popularizing Hinduism even along 
evil lines, developed decidedly in the direction of a grosser 
polytheism, and at the same time adapted itself to Buddhistic 
thought by putting sacrifice further into the background and 
inculcating a great regard for animal life. 

One of the main features of this period, with its 330,000,000 
divinities of sorts, is the triad of gods (or Trimirti), Brahmd, 
Vishnu, Shiva, represented as the manifestation of the great 
original JT or Brahm. The sacred monosyllable Om, whose 
proper utterance is supposed to secure marvellous results, is 


6 The two “great sentences’”’ were Brahmdsmi, “I am Brahma,” and Tat- 
twam asi, “It thou art.” 

7 There can be little or no question that this doctrine was taken by Buddha from 
Hinduism, not by the latter from Buddhism, as is sometimes stated. (See ‘‘Hin- 
duism. Past and Present,’’ pp. 50, 132; de la Fosse’s “History of India,” p. 28; 
Tisdall’s ‘India: its History, Darkness and Dawn,” p. 58). Indeed Buddhism may 
be said to be but the extreme development of the Sankhya Philosophy. 


16 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


made up of the letters representing these three names. A 
second conspicuous feature was the doctrine-of incarnation.® 
Ten incarnations, all of Vishnu, are usually recognized. The 
seventh, eighth and ninth were Rdm Chandra, the hero of the 
Ramayana, Krishna, the hero of the Mahabharata, and es- 
pecially of the Bhagavada Gita, and Buddha, skillfully adopted 
as a compromise with Buddhism. The tenth, yet to come, is, 
most significantly, to be a simless incarnation, is to be born of 
a virgin, and, riding on a white horse, is to destroy all the 
wicked with his blazing sword. The source of this striking 
conception can hardly be questioned, if the Scripture accounts 
of the first and second advents of Christ be run together. A 
third feature was the introduction of bhakti, or adoring wor- 
ship of divinity, as an alternative spiritual “path,” thus add- 
ing the bhakti-mdrg to the jnadna of the Philosophic and the 
karma of the Brahmanic period. The most popular object 
of this bhakti was Krishna (it is in the Bhagavada Gita that 
bhakti first appears), and it was partly at least owing to the 
evil character of that incarnation that a thought so true soon 
became low and gross.® A fourth feature of this period is the 
idea (which Dr. Mitchell traces to 200 B. C.) of sacred places, 
especially rivers, and of pilgrimages thereto. First the Indus, 
then the Saraswati, then the Ganges; among cities, Pryag 
(Allahabad), Kashi (Benares), Dwarka, Bindraban: these are 
a few of the hundreds of tirthas (sacred places) which grad- 
ually came into prominence as merit-bestowing points of pil- 
grimage. One other characteristic demands reluctant notice— 
the Sakti-worship of the Tdntras. Sakti means power, the 
power of the gods, personalized as the wives of the gods, es- 
pecially of the great triad. The rites connected with this 
worship, especially among the “left-hand” devotees, are ob- 
scene and horrible beyond belief.1 


5. Mopern Htnpuism (1700-).—The outlining of the 
previous periods has been worth while mainly because modern 
Hinduism is simply a composite of all these periods, with the 
possible exception of the first. Almost everything that ever 


® This doctrine is sometimes traced to Buddhist influence (““Hinduism: Past 
and Present,” ‘p. 102), but it is a question whether it may not have been simply a 
grotesque manifestation of a deep-lying truth, a truth learned in part from Christian 
sources, 
_ _° See “Hinduism: Past and Present,” p. 146 ff. It is to be noted that the 
Krishna of the Bhagavad Gita is a vastly higher conception than the Krishna of 
the rest of the Mdhdbhérata and of the Purénas. 

Ibid, p. 136 ff. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 17 


has been, still is.) The Brahman still makes the extravagant 
claims of the Brahmanic period, and the people bow in sub- 
mission; the educated classes still hold to the philosophies of 
the Darsanas, and the masses still delight in the stories of the 
Epics and Purdnas, and grovel before the divinities they cele- 
brate. Dr. Mitchell well says (‘““Hinduism,” p. 166) : 


As to belief, Hinduism includes a quasi-monotheism, pantheism, 
polytheism, polydemonism, and atheism, or at least agnosticism. As 
to worship, it includes meditation on Brahm, the One, the All—without 
external rites or mental homage—image-worship, fetish-worship, ghost- 
worship and demon-worship. But, again, a man may be a good Hindu, 
who avows no belief at all, provided he pays respect to Brahmans, 
does no injury to cows, and observes with scrupulous care the rules and 
customs of his caste. 


This is reinforced by the following from Guru Prasad Sen’s 
“Introduction to the Study of Hinduism” (p. 2): 7 


Hinduism is not, and has never been, a religious organization. It is 
a pure social system, imposing on those who are Hindus the observance 
of certain social forms, and not the profession of particular religious 
beliefs. It is perfectly optional with a Hindu to choose from any one 
of the different religious creeds with which the Shastras abound; he 
may choose to have a faith and a creed, if he wants a creed, or to do 
without one. He may be an atheist, a deist, a monotheist, or a polythe- 
ist, a believer in the Vedas or Shastras, or a sceptic as regards their 
authority, and his position as a Hindu cannot be questioned by anybody 
because of his beliefs or unbeliefs so long as he conforms to social rules. 


In all this diversity, however, two general trends of re- 
ligious thought may be traced: Among the more intelligent 
the pantheistic philosophy of the Upanishads, especially the 
Vedanta, is uppermost, with a polytheistic and idolatrous ten- 
dency ; among the ignorant, polytheism is uppermost, with an 
invariable pantheistic tendency. Pantheism, with its corollary 
in the transmigration of souls, is thus common to all. This 
as a creed, caste as a social system, and grossest idolatry as the 
commonest expression of the religious instinct, constitute the 
real Triad of Hinduism to-day. | 


V. Rerorm MovEMENTS FROM WITHIN HrNpuIsmM.—Bud- 
dhism might in a sense be called the first of these. The system 
preached by the great Shankara Acharya of the eighth century 
might be another candidate for a place in this category, except 
that it was after all but a restatement of the philosophy of the 
Vedanta Darsana. Probably the first place rightly belongs to 


18 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


1. Kabir.A—He flourished early in the fifteenth century, 
lived in or near Benares, and, influenced largely by Moham- 
medanism, proclaimed a modified pantheism that came very 
near to monotheism. His verses, pointed, suggestive and often 
full of truth, are popular all over Northern India to this day. 

Kabir’s followers are called Kabirpanthis (panth means 
path) ; but they have so largely conformed to Hinduism that 
they are classed simply as a Hindu sect. 


2. Sikhism—A more radical movement on lines similar 
to Kabir’s was led a century later by Nanak Shah, a Hindu 
from near Lahore. His evident aim was to combine Hindu- 
ism with Islam—with naturally unsatisfactory results. The 
creed of the Sikhs (“disciples”) has been described both as 
deism and pantheism: it certainly is not monotheism. Their 
sacred book, compiled mainly by Guru (teacher) Arjun, fifth 
in succession to Nanak, is called the Adi-Granth (“the basal 
book’), and has, in the course of the centuries, been deified 
—is in fact their distinctive object of worship at the present 
day. Had it not been for persecution by the Mohammedans 
(especially Aurangzeb) and consequent development into a 
great political and military power, Sikhism would probably 
have long ago faded away. As it is, there has been a tendency 
to remerge into Hinduism, so much so that the census of 1891 
said: 


The only trustworthy method of distinguishing this creed was to 
ask if the person in question repudiated the services of the barber and 
the tobacconist; for the precepts most strictly enforced nowadays are 
that the hair of the head and face must never be cut, and that smoking 
is a habit to be absolutely avoided. 


The Census of 1911, however, shows an increase of nearly 
AO per cent. in two decades—up to a total of 3,014,466 (two- 
thirds of them in the Panjab). . 


3. The Brahmo Samdéj.2—Its founder, Ram Mohan Roy, 
a Brahman of Bengal, beginning with a strong antipathy to 
idolatry,* passing through a period of Vedantism, and finally, 
through contact with Christianity and the Scriptures, reaching 
a definite theistic belief, organized the Brahmo Samdj, and in 


2See Dr. Mitchell’s “Hinduism,” etc., p. 156. 
3 Samaj simply means an association. 
* Under the influence, it has been suggested by some, of the teachings of Isldm. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. IQ 


1830 opened the first Hindu Theistic church. He went to 
England in 1831 and died there in 1833. He was followed by 
Dabendra Nath Tagore, under whose leadership the Samaj in 
1850 definitely rejected the infallibility of the Vedas. 

In 1857 Mr. Tagore was joined by the famous Keshab 
Chandar Sen, “whose religious views, as we heard from his 
own lips,’ says Dr. Mitchell, “were drawn in the first instance 
from the Bible and from the writings of Dr. Chalmers.’’® For a 
while the two leaders worked cordially together, but Tagore’s 
ideas were more or less reactionary, while the younger man 
was eagerly progressive and seemed to be drawing nearer to 
Christianity : so that in 1866, Mr. Sen and his friends separated 
themselves and formed the “Brahmo Samaj of India,” the 
older branch being known as the “Adi (original) Brahmo 
Samaj.”’ Another split occurred in 1878, when as the result 
of controversies growing out of the marriage of Mr. Sen’s 
under-age daughter to the Maharaja of Kuch Behar (who 
was not a Brahmo), two-thirds of his followers, including 
some of the best men in the Samaj withdrew and formed the 
Sadhdran (Universal) Samaj, leaving their former leader to 
call himself and his remaining adherents “The New Dispen- 
sation.”® On Mr. Sen’s death in 1884, Mr. P. C. Mozumdar 
succeeded to the leadership of the “Church of the New Dis- 
pensation,’ and has since been the best known exponent of 
Brahmoism. 

To accurately «characterize this movement is difficult. Mr. 
Sen made much of the distinctly Christian doctrines of the 
Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man, and he once 
used the remarkable words, ‘““None but Jesus, none but Jesus 
deserves this precious diadem, India; and none but Jesus shall 
have it.” But at the same time he declared all religions to be 
true, and ended by claiming distinct inspiration for himself 
and introducing all sorts of extravagances, both of doctrine 
and ceremonial. The most that can be said for Brahmoism 
is that it is a theistic eclecticism, and constitutes a vast ad- 
vance on orthodox Hinduism, in matters social as well as 
religious.’ What with its lack of definite beliefs, and its end- 
less subdivisions, it is no wonder that it is making small 
progress, passing only from 3,051 in 1891 to 5,504 in IQIT. 

5 “Hinduism,” etc., 

6In a letter to Max Miller fae describes it as “a new Hinduism which combines 
Yoga and Bhakti, and also a new Christianity which blends together Apostolical 
faith and modern civilization and science.” 


7 For a full and fair discussion see “Hinduism: Past and Present,” p. 211 ff.; 
also Murdoch’s “Religious History of India,” p. 143 ff 


20 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


4. The Arya Samdj.—Utterly different in most respects 
from the preceding is the movement started in 1863 and for- 
mally organized in 1875 by a Brahman from Kathiawar (born 
1827), who, after his initiation as a Sanyasi (Hindu ascetic), 
was known as Dayanand Saraswati, and who before his death 
in 1883 had gained a large following. The leading tenets of 
the sect he established are:§ 1. The four Vedas alone, and 
of them only the Sanhitas or Hymns, are inspired. 2. There 
are three eternal substances—God, Spirit and Matter. 3. The 
soul is incorporeal, but is always perfectly distinct from God. 
4. The soul is subject to rebirth, which may be in the form of 
a human being or an animal or a vegetable. 5. “Salvation is 
the state of emancipation from pain and from subjection to 
birth and death, and of life, liberty and happiness in the im- 
mensity of God.” 

To the credit of the Arya Samaj it is claimed that it is op- 
posed to caste, to idolatry, to child-marriage, to lavish expendi- 
ture at weddingsand topilgrimages: most of which opposition, 
unfortunately, is theoretical only, especially as to caste. The 
positive weaknesses in it are that it is practically deistic 
rather than theistic; that it is utterly illogical, being based 
on the most fanciful and preposterous interpretation of the 
Vedas*’—Sanskritists of any faith being the judges; that most 
of its advocates have in their discussions been marked by a 
spirit of conceit, bigotry and bitterness seldom surpassed ; and 
that they have devoted their strength to attacking Christianity 
rather than the errors of Hinduism, the correction of which 
is their avowed raison d’ étre. 

The growth of the Aryas has been remarkable, reaching a 
total of 243,000 in I9IT, an increase of 100 per cent. in the 
decade. The explanation is to be found partly in the aggres- 
sive activity of their propaganda; partly in their imitation of 
Christian methods, not only in the use of tracts and paid and 
voluntary preachers, but in the establishment of schools, or- 
phanages and colleges ;t and partly in the fact that while re- 
forming certain abuses of Hinduism, of which intelligent Hin- 
dus themselves are ashamed, they still appeal to Hindu pride 
in that they retain the old philosophy and cosmogony and the 


8 Taken mainly from Vol. XVI. of the Census of India, rgor. 

® The Aryas claim that the Vedas are the repositories of all knowledge, secular 
as well as religious: they read into them the telegraph, the steam engine, and 
even the X-Rays! 

1 They have orphanages at Bareilly, Cawnpore and Allahabad, a High School 
at Meerut, a College at Lahore, and a number of scattered schools of lower grade, 
including a few for girls. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 21 


doctrine of the inspiration of at least a portion of the Vedas. 
Their progress is in spite of division; for strife has waxed 
fierce between the conservatives, or vegetarians, and the liber- 
als, or meat-eaters.” In any case they are a force to be reck- 
oned with in the present missionary situation. It will take 
all the wisdom of Christian workers to meet their sophistries, 
all their gentleness to meet their exasperating tactics. 


5. Lheosophy. This may be called a reform movement 
in so far as its leaders from the West, and especially its pres- 
ent eloquent and popular high-priestess, Mrs. Annie Besant, 
have presented those ideals of social and moral progress which _ 
are the result of the Christian atmosphere in which they them- 
selves have been brought up. It is reactionary in that it es- 
pecially glorifies the past, white-washing by allegorical inter- 
pretation the puerile (and worse) tales of the Puranas, and 
justifving even idolatry (as a sort of kindergarten) and the 
caste system. 

The fundamental principles of the movement are: 1. The 
Impersonality of the Supreme Being; 2. The Unity of the 
World and God; 3. ‘Cognition—the fundamental element of 
self-consciousness; 4. The ecstatic character of ultimate theo- 
sophic truth; 5. Karma and reincarnation; and 6. The power 
of Magic. The great goal is the apprehension of the identity 
of the individual self with the World-Self. Of the latter 
Mrs. Besant says: 


Theosophy postulates the existence of an eternal Principle, known 
only through its effects. No words can describe It, for words imply 
discriminations, and This is Artz. We murmur, Absolute, Infinite, 
Unconditioned,—but the words mean naught. Sat, the Wise speak of; 
BE-NEss, not even Being nor Existence. 


The basis of the movement, as defined by Mrs. Besant her- 
self, is threefold: The Upanishads, the writings of Mrs. 
Blavatsky and the discoveries of Western Science. To an 
eclectic combination of the Yoga and Vedanta schools with 
the theosophic doctrines of Egypt, Greece and the Jewish Kab- 
bala, modern Theosophy has added, among other things, a most 
thorough-going application of the doctrine of evolution, and 
as thorough-going an adaptation of the essentially Christian 
doctrine—not even hinted at in the Upanishads—of the Fath- 


2 Ghasis and Mdsis (‘“grassies’”? and “‘fleshies’””) they derisively call each other! 


22 HISTORICAL -SKETCH~ OF 


erhood of God and the Brotherhood of man. To the skilful 
use of these borrowed features, combined with a whole-souled 
adulation of everything Indian, is largely due the popularity 
of this cult—a popularity which has found marked manifesta- 
tion in the establishment of the Hindu College at Benares. 

Doubt as to the reality or permanence of this reform is 
deepened by the fact that the writings of Madame Blavatsky, 
whose gross impositions in connection with the magical side 
of Theosophy were shown up in 1884 by the Madras “Chris- 
tian College Magazine,” are accepted as a part of the authorita- 
tive basis of Indian Theosophy. As a matter of fact, Theos- 
ophy’s influence seems to be on the wane, and certain Indian 
reformers are expressing the belief that leaders of whom much 
might have been expected have been rendered ineffective by the 
stupefying draughts of Theosophy dispensed at Benares and 
Madras. 


V. MoHAMMEDANISM or ISLAM, the religion of sixty-six 
millions of the inhabitants of India, is an eclectic system, com- 
posed of Jewish, heathen and Christian elements, which were 
scattered through Arabia before Mohammed. It borrowed 
monotheism and many rites (e. g. circumcision) from the Jews. 
Professedly a restoration of the faith of Abraham, it traces 
its line through Ishmael. Christ is acknowledged as the great- 
est prophet next to Mohammed, whose coming He is claimed 
to have predicted when He promised the Paraclete! His birth 
from a virgin is acknowledged, as also His second coming to 
judge the earth; but the doctrine of His divinity is regarded 
as blasphemy—still more the doctrine of the Trinity. The 
inspiration of the Pentateuch, of the Psalms, and of the Gos- 
pels, is admitted; with these two qualifications, that all have 
been superseded by the Quran, and that the Gospels have been 
largely interpolated by Christians. The crucifixion is rejected. 
It is held that Christ was caught up alive into the fourth 
heaven after His arrest, and that some one—probably Judas 
-—was crucified in His place. The Christian elements in the 
Quran are obviously taken from apocryphal sources, not from 
the Gospels. With these garbled Jewish and Christian tradi- 
tions Mohammed mingled, with some modifications, heathen 
sensuality, polygamy, slavery, and even idolatry—in the venera- 
tion of the famous black stone in the Kaaba at Mecca. 

Starting with the fundamental doctrine, “There is no God — 
but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet,” Islam has six ar- 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 23 


ticles of faith,—God, fatalism (under the guise of predestina- 
tion), angels, sacred books (especially the Quran), prophets, 
resurrection and judgment (with eternal reward and punish- 
ment). Absolute submission to Allah’s will is the first duty 
of the Moslem. Prayer, fasting, almsgiving and pilgrimages 
are enjoined. Not only polygamy, but concubinage, is. per- 
mitted, ordinary Moslems being restricted to four wives, pashas 
and sultans being allowed as many as they please.’ Believers 
are promised a sensual paradise, with special rewards for 
those who die for the faith. 

Beginning as a poor caravan-attendant, or camel-driver, and 
marrying in his twenty-fifth year the rich widow Khadijah, 
Mohammed received at the age of forty-two (A. D. 612) what 
she helped him to believe was his divine call, through Gabriel, 
to the prophetic office. He had little success in securing ad- 
herents until the persecution he provoked compelled him, on 
July 15th, 622, to flee to Medina. This flight, the Hegira (or 
Hijrah), is the event from which the Mohammedan era dates. 
At Medina he was accepted as the prophet of God, took the 
field with an ever-increasing army of followers, and eight years 
later entered Mecca in triumph. Of the sincerity of his orig- 
inal purposes there can be little question. He was a zealous 
reformer; a morbid imagination, combined with the seeming 
need of supernatural sanction for his reforms, did the rest. 
Then with success came ambition, with power came sensual 
passion. The reformer of Mecca became the conquest-seek- 
ing autocrat of Medina.* 

The Quran Mohammed professed to have received from 
Gabriel piece by piece. A year after his death his amanu- 
ensis, Zaid, collected the scattered fragments “from palm 
leaves, and tablets of white stone, and from the breasts of 
men.” The 6,225 verses are arranged in 114 Suras, and re- 
motely resemble Hebrew poetry. It contains injunctions and 
warnings, interspersed with narratives about Adam, Noah, 
Moses, Abraham, Ishmael, John the Baptist, Jesus and many 
others. It abounds in historical blunders and tedious repeti- 
tions, but has also passages of great poetic beauty. It is 
pointed to as Mohammed’s one and conclusive miracle, though 
he is also sometimes credited with having cut in two the moon 
and then restored it. 

There can be little doubt that the spread of Islam in India 


8 The prophet himself had eleven wives, and at least two concubines. 
4For a full statement see Chap. II of Dr. Zwemer’s altogether admirable book, 
“Islami. 


24 HISTORICAL SKETCH: OF 


was mainly due to the power of the sword, especially during 
and after the reign of Aurangzeb. Tippoo Sahib, for instance, 
Sultan of Mysore, secured 70,000 “converts’’ in a single day. 
At the same time, other motives than fear, some of them not 
more worthy, have contributed their quota. The resultant 
Mohammedanism bears the marks of its mixed ancestry and 
its Hindu environment. The account in the census of India 
for ‘91 (p. 168) is instructive: 


Shiah and Sunni’ joined issue without recourse to arms. The good 
men amongst the teachers (the Islamized Hindus) received divine 
honors as if they had never left the Brahmanic fold; and in default 
of the pilgrimage to Mecca, resort was had to the tombs of the canon- 
ized, where fruit and flowers are offered, as to one of the orthodox 
pantheon, and often by Hindu and Moslem alike! Saints are the spe- 
cial feature of the Indian development of Islam, and the worship of 
relics follows. In some places there is a hair or two, in others a 
slipper, elsewhere a foot-print, of the Prophet, to which the devout 
pay homage, and are rewarded by miracles. Even where the two re- 
ligions do not participate in the same festival, the more simple has 
borrowed for Indian use some of the attributes of the more elaborate, 
as in the case of the procession of paper tombs at the Muharram,® and 
the subsequent dipping of the imitation fabrics in water, as in the 
Durga Puja‘ of Bengal. 


At the opposite extreme from the conservative though some- 
what Hinduized majority, there is a small but influential 
progressive party formed by the late Sir Satyad Ahmad Khan, 
and finding its best expression in the splendid college founded 
by him at Aligarh. The important concessions made by this 
party are the recognition of reason as having a place in 
the interpretation of the Quran, and the rejection of the great 
mass of Moslem tradition. 

Viewing Islam in India as a whole, the closing sentence of 
Mr. Tisdall’s able chapter on this theme (“Jndia, Its History,” 
etc., p. 77, ff.) compels assent: 


_In spite of its many half truths, the existence of which we mis- 
sionaries thankfully acknowledge, and upon which we base our attempts 
to induce Moslems to accept the full light of the Gospel, it is not too 
much to say that, in the life and character of its Founder, the “Chosen” 
of God, and his ideal for the human race, Islam has preserved an ever 
active principle of corruption, degradation and decay. 


5 The Shiahs, who are greatly in the minority in India (in fact, everywhere 
except in Persia), maintain that Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, was his first legiti- 
mate successor, and so reject the first three Caliphs accepted by the Sunnis. Ordi- 
narily the strife between the two sects is bitter to a degree. 

® A great Mohammedan festival, which with the Shiahs is a memorial of the 
death of their martyrs, Hasan and Hussain, whose tombs they carry in e 


rer . ° . e sy. 
_, _Durga Puja is the great Hindu festival in honor of Durga, or Kali, the cruel 
wife of Shiva. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 25 


CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 
MIssIONARY BEGINNINGS. 


The earliest known Christian missionary to India, sent 
apparently at the request of certain Indian merchants, already 
Christians, was Pantaenus, the Principal of the Christian Col- 
lege at Alexandria (about A. D. 180). Theophilus Indicus, 
paying a passing visit to India in Constantine’s time, “found a 
flourishing Christian Church; and among the Bishops at the 
Nicene Council (A. D. 325) was John, the Metropolitan of 
Persia and ‘of the great India.’” Of the further history of 
these Christians, and of the Roman Catholic movement later 
on, Rev. J. A. Graham, in his “Missionary Expansion of the 
Reformed Churches,” says (pp. 102, 103): 


Later they came under the influence of the Nestorian Church of 
Persia, and when it was destroyed by the Mohammedan conquest, the 
isolated Church in India grew ignorant and impure. Vasco da Gama 
found these Christians enjoying much political influence, and the 
Portuguese, in extending their dominions from Goa along the west 
coast, tried to force them into ecclesiastical subjection to Rome. 
With the help of the Inquisition they succeeded for a time with the 
communities in the coast villages, and these, numbering perhaps 
150,000,° are still known as Syro-Roman Christians. Claudius Bu- 
chanan, who visited those who still adhered to the Syrian Church and 
looked to Antioch as their centre, persuaded them to translate the 
Gospels into their Malayan vernacular; and at his suggestion the 
Church Missionary Society sent missionaries in 1816 to encourage the 
Church and aid it to reform itself. The alliance, which lasted for 
twenty-one years, had good results, and there is now a considerable 
party of reform within a Church of 200,000.” (The census of I0II 
gives the following figures: Syrian, Jacobite, 225,190 and Syrian, Re- 
formed, 75,848—indicating a further subdivision). 


Of the work of the Romish Church, to which the census of 
IQII gives 1,490,864 adherents, the same author says (p. 103) : 


The best traditions of Roman Catholic Missions cluster around the 
name of the great and devoted Jesuit, Francis Xavier, who landed at 
Goa in 1542, and of whom Bishop Cotton wrote to Dean Stanley: . 
“While he deserves the title of the Apostle of India for his energy, 
self-sacrifice, and piety, I consider his whole method thoroughly wrong, 
and its results in India and Ceylon deplorable, and that the aspect of 
the Native Christians at Goa and elsewhere shows that Romanism has 
had a fair trial at the conversion of India, and has entirely failed.” 


8 This is an inexplicable under-estimate, for the census of 1911 gives 413,142. 


26 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


In this connection the following from Mr. Tisdall (“India: 
Its History,” etc., p. 97), is of interest: 


The corrupt and merely nominal Christianity of many of these 
Roman Catholics often brings discredit on their Christian profession, 
and is the main reason why Europeans think they have grounds for 
condemning Christian servants as often more dishonest and unscrupu- 
lous than Hindu and Mohammedan servants. Comparatively few 
Protestant Christians are to be found as the servants of Europeans. 


Of Dutch religious enterprise, which began soon after the 
overthrow of the Portuguese by that power (Ceylon, 1658, 
India, 1663), little need be said, except that the work was 
strangely superficial, no earnest attempt being made to bring 
the Bible or spiritual teaching within the reach of the people. 
Though more than half a million converts were reported in 
Ceylon alone, Protestant Christianity had practically ceased 
to exist in the island, in twelve years after the Dutch power 
had passed (1794) from control! 

To Denmark and to Frederick IV., under the influence of 
Dr. Lutkens, the court chaplain, belongs the honor of sending 
to India the first Protestant missionaries, Ziegenbalg and 
Plutschau, who reached the Danish colony, Tranquebar (on 
the Coromandel Coast, south of Madras City), on July 9, 1706. 
The greatest of these Danish-Halle missionaries—and one of 
the greatest the world has known—was Christian F. Schwartz, 
whose service (Tranquebar, Trichinopoly and Tanjore), ex- 
tended from 1750 to his death in 1798. “He was,” says Mr. 
Graham,® “indefatigable in his missionary tours, and wherever 
he went his devoted, modest and unselfish life, his care for the 
poor, his scholarship and knowledge of the native languages 
and thought, and his marvellous personal influence fascinated 
Europeans and Indians.” In illustration of his influence with 
native rulers it is worth recording that the Hindu Rajah of 
Tanjore on his death-bed entrusted to Schwartz his adopted 
son, Serfojee, with the administration of all the affairs of his 
country; and that the powerful Mohammedan Prince, Haidar 
Ali, of Mysore, when treating with the British said: “Send 
none of your agents; send me the Christian missionary, and I - 
will receive him.” 

British missions in India began with William Carey, “the 
consecrated cobbler.” Overflowing with enthusiasm for the 
cause of missions, and filling his brief pastorates at home with 


® “Missionary Expansion,” etc., p. 57. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 27 


teaching along this line, he finally, in 1792, by the preaching 
of the famous sermon on Isa. liv: 2, 3, with its twofold 
division, “Expect great things from God: attempt great things 
for God,” brought about the organization of the Baptist Mis- 
sionary Association, and himself became its first missionary: 
Arriving in India (1793) during the period of the East India 
Company’s bitterest opposition to missionary enterprise, he 
spent six years in Calcutta and Dinajpore ostensibly as an 
indigo-planter, and then was compelled to take refuge, to- 
gether with Marshman and Ward, who had been sent to re- 
inforce him, in Serampore, a town under Danish rule, thirteen 
miles north of Calcutta. The first care of the “Serampore 
Triad” was the translation and printing of the Scriptures, 
The result was the production of parts or the whole of the 
Bible in nearly forty’ languages and dialects, twenty-four of 
them of India. Education, too, had a large place in their 
work. Not only were vernacular schools established, but out 
of the earnings of the missionaries themselves the splendid 
Serampore College was built. 

Not the least of Carey’s services was the missionary fire 
which he kindled outside of his own denomination. The Lon- 
don Missionary Society (English Congregational), founded 
in 1795, was a direct fruit of his enthusiasm; and the Church 
Missionary Society, the great society of the Church of Eng- 
land, owed its inception (1790)* in no small degree to the 
interest he aroused. 

The “Hay-stack prayer meeting” at Williamstown, Mass., 
did for the United States very much what the work and prayers 
of Carey did for England, and bore its first manifest fruit in 
the organization of the A. B. C. F. M. in 1810, and then in 
the departure for India in 1812 of Judson, Hall, Nott, and two 
others. Refused the right of residence in Calcutta, Judson, 
who had meanwhile become a Baptist, went on to Burmah, 
while Hall and Nott began the great work of the American 
Board in the Bombay region. 

This enumeration of beginnings would not be complete with- 
out mention of the famous Scottish ‘Educational Trio,” Duff, 
Wilson and Anderson. The last two founded institutions in 
Bombay and Madras respectively, following lines laid down 


1 Dr. George Smith’s “Conversion of India,” p. 180. They enlisted in the work 
the services also of the devoted Chaplains, Henry Martyn and Thomason, and even 
of a Roman Catholic priest. 

2 Begun as “Society for Missions to Africa and the East,’’ and changed to “C. 
Mer ovoniiie tore. 


28 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


in Calcutta in 1830 by the first. Of him Mr. Graham says 
(‘Missionary Expansion,” etc., p. 113): 


Alexander Duff was the epoch-making missionary, who, though 
stoutly opposed by the use and prejudice of the day, proved that the 
English language was “the most effective medium of Indian illumina- - 
tignieest * * * He opened his school in 1830 with five pupils. 
Nine years afterwards the five had become 800, and the Governor- 
General declared that the system had produced “unparalleled results.” 
Notable converts were won from the upper classes, among them 
Krishna Mohan Banerjee, a Brahman of high social position and the 
accomplished editor of the Jnquirer, who was, until his death a few 
years ago, the recognized leader of the Native Christian community of 
Bengal. An idea of the influence of this work may be formed from 
Sherring’s statement that in 1871, nine of Duff’s educated converts 
were ministers, ten were catechists, seventeen were professors and 
higher-grade teachers, eight were Government servants, and four were 
assistant surgeons and doctors. One of them, the Hon. Kali Charan 
Banerji, LL. B., was (1807) appointed by the Senate of Calcutta Uni- 
versity as their ‘representative on the Bengal Legislative Council. 


THE AMERICAN PRESBYTERIAN MISSION. 


It was before the organization (1837) of the present For- 
eign Board, and while the Western Foreign Missionary So- 
ciety (formed in 1831 by the Synod of Pittsburgh) was still 
in existence, that the Rev. John C. Lowrie, afterward for 
fifty-five years a Secretary of our Board, and the Rev. Will- 
iam Reed, with their wives, were sent to India to lay the 
foundations of the work which the Presbyterian Church had 
resolved to carry on in that land. The selection of the par- 
ticular field in which they should begin their labors was left 
to their judgment after consultation with friends of the work 
in India. Leaving America (New Castle, Del.), in May, 1833, 
they reached Calcutta in October of the same year, and after 
getting the best information available, they decided to begin 
the work at Ludhiana, then a frontier town of the Northwest 
Provinces. It was the gateway to the Panjab, a territory at 
that time under Ranjit Singh, the famous ruler of the Sikhs. 
Dr. Lowrie, in his “T'wo Years in India,” after stating some 
more general reasons which influenced his colleague and him- 
self in their decision, says: 


Having now the history of nearly seventeen years to confirm the 
opinion, I have no doubt that Ludhiana was preferable to any other 
as a point from which to commence our efforts. Other cities had a 
larger population, and could be reached in less time and at less expense, 
but at no other could more favorable introducing influences have been 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA, 29 


enjoyed; at no other could our position have been more distinctly 
marked, nor our characters and object more accurately estimated by 
the foreign residents of the upper provinces; at no other were we less 
likely to find ourselves laboring “in another man’s line of things made 
ready to our hand,” or to occupy ground that other bodies of Chris- 
tians would shortly cultivate; and no other place could be more eligible 
in its facilities for acquiring the languages chiefly spoken in those parts. 


While Messrs. Lowrie and Reed were detained at Calcutta, 
it became evident that Mrs. Lowrie’s health, which had been 
impaired before leaving America, was rapidly failing, and on 
November 21st she was called to her rest. Soon after this 
Mr. Reed, too, began to fail in health, and, reluctantly turn- 
ing toward America again, died on board ship and was buried 
in the Bay of Bengal. The solitary remaining member of the 
band turned undismayed toward the far northwest, and, jour- 
neying by boat up the Ganges to Cawnpore, and over four 
hundred miles further in a palankeen, reached Ludhiana on 
the 5th of November, 1834. Reinforcements, consisting of 
Rev. Messrs. John Newton and James Wilson and their wives, 
arrived a year later*—only just in time to relieve Dr. Lowrie, 
whose broken health forbade longer stay in India. 

In the course of time not only did this one station grow to 
be an extensive mission, but two other missions were added, 
the Farukhabad or North India Mission in 1838, and the Kol- 
hapur or Western India Mission in 1870. ‘The missionaries 
of each of these missions are organized into a separate body, 
meeting annually, and controlling the location of its own mem- 
bers, the appointment of preachers, teachers, etc., the adminis- 
tration of the funds received from home, and the work in gen- 
eral, all under the superintendence and sanction of the Board 
in New York. Details of the work of these missions can be 
best obtained from a brief survey of the individual stations. 


Tue Panyap (LupHIANA) Mission.—As already intimated, 
Mr. Lowrie’s objective, when, after consultation with mission- 
aries at Calcutta, including Carey, Marshman and Duff, he 
started up the Ganges, was the “Land ot five rivers” (Panyj, 
five and db, water), then in the hands of the Sikhs. While 
waiting for the opening of the Panjab, however, the mission- 
aries laid foundations at Ludhiana as broad and deep as if 

3 Tt took this party five and a half months to make the journey from Caleutta— 


three months in a boat to Fatehgarh, the rest of the way in a “‘palankeen drawn 
by oxen.” The journey requires forty hours now! 


3C HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


no further point had been in mind; so that to 
LUDHIANA this day Ludhiana is one of the most important 

stations of the mission. One of the first per- 
manent agencies established was the Press. Two presses and 
fonts of type were early on the scene, and a practical printer, 
who went out in 1838, soon trained a corps of efficient native 
workmen. The fruit of this work has been over 400,000,000 
pages of Christian truth. 

The Anglo-Vernacular High School here was the first started 
in North India, and has been doing efficient work through all 
the years. Much later (1877) a school for Native Christian 
boys was brought here from Lahore, and after a four years’ 
suspension for lack of an available missionary to manage it, 
was re-opened in 1883 by the Rev. E. M. Wherry, D. D., in a 
building provided by the W. F. M. S. (Philadelphia). An 
industrial department was added, with instruction in shoe- 
making, carpentering and weaving of Turkish rugs; and it is 
now, under Rev. E. E. Fife, one of the most important institu- 
tions for Christian boys in all North India. 

From the first, energetic evangelistic work has been carried 
on both in the city and in the great out-lying district. A part 
of the result is to be seen in the Ludhiana church, and in the 
hundreds of Christians scattered through the villages and or- 
ganized into several small churches. 

The most important sub-stations are (1) Jagraon, which is 
an important centre for work among village women, and where 
there is a Boarding School for village children, with an at- 
tendance of fifty; and (2) Moga, the centre of a population 
of half a million people, where the late Rev. J.N. Hyde labored 
prayerfully and efficiently for several years, gathering a Chris- 
tian community of over one thousand, and where Rev. Ray C. 
Carter has charge of the recently established Training School 
for village teachers and preachers. 

During all the earlier years the missionaries were hoping 
and praying for the opening of the Panjab. With the close 
of the second Sikh War, in 1849, the opening came. Ranjit 
Singh, dying in 1839, had left no successor capable of wielding 
his iron sceptre, and the Sikh council of Sirdars rashly em- 
barked on two unprovoked and disastrous wars against the 
British. The second ended in the annexation of the Panjab; 

_and almost on the heels of the British forces, Messrs. 
LAHORE John Newton and C. W. Forman entered Lahore, 
the capital, and began mission work. From the be- 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 31 


ginning the missionaries received the cordial sympathy and 
support of such distinguished Christian officers as Lord Law- 
rence, Sir Donald McLeod, Sir Herbert Edwardes and Sir R. 
Montgomery. A school was opened and street preaching be- 
gun soon after the arrival of the missionaries; and in this 
work these brethren were permitted to continue, Mr. Newton 
for forty-two and Mr. Forman for forty-five years. Their 
influence upon the life and thought of the entire province was 
very great and still abides. It is of interest to note that the 
one lived to see his four sons and two daughters (Mrs. For- 
man and Mrs. Ferguson) in the mission field around him, and 
the other, three of his sons and two of his daughters. 

The Boys’ High School, now known as the Rang Mahal 
School, founded in the early days of the Mission, and pre- 
sided over by Mr. Forman till his death in 1894, is one of the 
largest and best known in the Panjab. In connection with it, 
in 1864, a Collegiate Department was opened, with Rev. J. A. 
Henry as its first President. Five years later, owing to the 
death of Mr. Henry and the reduction of the mission staff by 
sickness and death, it was indefinitely suspended. In 1886, 
however, College classes were reopened by Mr. Forman and 
Rev. H. C. Velte. The institution was known simply as the 
Mission College, but at the death of Mr. Forman, who had 
been succeeded as President a few years before by Rev. J. C. 
R, Ewing, it was appropriately named the Forman Christian 
College. It opened with fifteen students, but has grown to be 
one of the most largely attended Colleges, Government or 
Missionary,north of Calcutta. The enrollment in 1910 was 420, 
of whom 209 were Hindus, 151 Mohammedans, 40 Sikhs and 
20 Christians. The President and usually four of the Profes- 
sors are Fellows of the Panjab University, and have had no 
small share in shaping the educational progress of the province. 
In this connection it is interesting to note that in 1910 Dr. 
Ewing was appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Panjab Univer- 
sity, and that the College staff has from time to time furnished 
the Deans of three of the University Faculties. In 1889 com- 
modious buildings, which had been erected on a site valued 
at 20,000 rupees, ‘given by the Government, were formally 
dedicated, Lord Lansdowne and other distinguished guests 
being present. The total cost of the buildings was 56,000 
rupees, of which 20,000 were a grant from Government in 
addition to the site. Substantial additions to the property of 
the College have been made from time to time: one of the 


32 ’ HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


most recent being a hostel or dormitory for Hindus and Mo- 
hammedans, named in memory of Mr. Newton, Sr.; and the 
last the Chatterjee Science Building, called after the venerable 
President of the Board of Directors. These various buildings 
have been provided through the gifts of individuals and gov- 
ernment, at a cost of 200,000 rupees. The income annually 
from tuition fees is about 30,000 rupees. This, together with 
a grant-in-aid from government, provides for the salaries of 
all non-missionary professors, general expenditure upon lab- 
oratory, library, repairs, etc. The only cost to the Board is the 
salary of the four missionary professors. 

A recent interesting development has been the emphasis on 
Social Service among both the Christian and non-Christian 
students, resulting in the formation of a League of Service, 
which has issued two reports of work done. Probably the 
first book ever written in India on this subject is Prof. Def. 
Fleming’s “Some Suggestions for Social Helpfulness.” 

Evangelistic effort finds its opportunities—besides those af- 
forded by the High School and College—in the Lohari Gate 
Chapel (the Forman Memorial) and in an extensive district 
work. Part of the Lahore District constitutes the Home Mis- 
sion field of Lahore Presbytery. The work has greatly de- 
veloped of late in the Sharakpur region, where a Christian 
community of about a thousand has been gathered. Woman’s 
work has been earnestly pushed in Lahore, and has its main 
centres in two large schools and a dispensary, besides a school 
for Christian women, connected with the Hira Mandi con- 
gregation. Labors in behalf of Europeans have borne fruit in 
a strong Presbyterian Church, now supplied by the Church 
of Scotland. There are also two Indian churches, Naulakha, 
largely self-supporting, under the able pastoral care of Rev. 
Talib ud Din, and the Hira Mandi, near Lahore Fort, whose 
membership has. been gathered almost entirely from the low- 
caste people. 

Wagah is an out-station of Lahore, where Miss Thiede has 
lived and labored for many years, her best loved work having 
been the adoption and care of homeless children. 

Saharanpur was one of the first cities occu- 
SAHARANPUR pied by our missionaries. Here labored for 
half a century the missionaries of the Cov- 
enanter or Reformed Presbyterian Church. Here was estab- 
lished in 1838 a Boys’ Orphanage, from which have gone forth 
some of our most distinguished evangelists. This institution . 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 33 


has in recent years been greatly enlarged, and industrial train- 
ing on an extensive scale has been carried on under the super- 
vision of Rev. C. W. Forman, M. D., and later under Mr. 
Borup, an expert in this line. The institution is now the best 
equipped school for industrial training in the mission. There 
are now: (1912) about 100 boys, many of whom complete their 
training in Rurki Engineering College. 

Here, too, is the Theological Seminary (established in 1884), 
where have been trained not only many of the most effective 
preachers of our own missions, but some of those of the 
Scotch Presbyterian Mission in Rajputana. There is now an 
enrollment of 46 students, some of whom are taking the ad- 
vanced course for licentiates and ordained ministers (Oct.- 
Feb.), and some the simpler course for village pastors (March- 
July). The Seminary is under the charge of one missionary 
from the Panjab Mission (Mr. Velte), and one from the 
North India (Dr. Johnson), with competent Indian assistants. 
A school for the wives of the students has also rendered valu- 
able service ; and woman’s work in general has one of its larg- 
est and best organized centres at this station. Under mission 
management also is the Municipal Leper Asylum, where a 
large proportion of the inmates have become Christians. 

Ambala, situated in the centre of a splendid rural 
AMBALA listrict, and the headquarters of the great military 
district of Sirhind, was early chosen as a mission 
station, and good work has been done both in the city and at 
the Cantonments four miles away, the two constituting separate 
stations. The Boys’ High School in the city has maintained an 
excellent stand for scholarship, and has an enrollment of 600. 
Half the inmates of the Leper Asylum, which was estab- 
lished in 1848, are now Christians. In connection with the 
well-equipped “Philadelphia Hospital for Women,” there were 
during the year 1910, 339 in-patients and over 15,000 out- 
patients. An Anglo-Vernacular School for girls—the initial 
cost largely met by a private gift—has also been started at 
Ambala City. Extensive zenana work is carried on, and vil- 
lage work on a large scale at several centres in the district. 
A section of the district has been transferred to the New Zea- 
land Presbyterian Mission. 
The city of Jalandhar has the distinction of be- 
JALANDHAR ing the first point occupied within the territory 
over which the Sikh Raja Ranjit Singh had 
held sway. No sooner had the victory of the English in the 


34 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


first Sikh War been announced than the missionaries at Lu- 
dhiana sent one of their number to inspect this field and to ar- 
range for the location of an assistant there. This assistant 
was the Rev. Golak Nath, the first convert baptized at Lud- 
hiana, and the first native minister of our Church in India. 
He went to Jalandhar in 1846, and there he labored faithfully 
for nearly half a century. For several years before the death 
of Mr. Golak Nath, and for all the years since, this station 
has been occupied by American missionaries, who carry on the 
threefold work of evangelistic preaching in city and surround- 
ing villages, educational work in schools for boys and girls, 
and work among the women in the zenanas. The Rey. Dr. 
C. B. Newton has for many years been in charge, and has con- 
ducted extensive work among the low-caste population: a work 
which has received a further impetus since the transfer of 
Dr. and Mrs. Orbison to this field. For 1910 a total of 335 
baptisms were reported. The Boys’ High School enrolls 
about 700, and a Boarding School for the Christian boys of 
this and the Hoshyarpur districts is about to be constructed 
out of the “Kennedy Fund.” Kapurthala, a native state, where 
work had been suspended for thirty years, was a few years 
ago reoccupied as an out-station, with the full consent of the 
friendly Maharajah. Jalandhar is the home of Raja Sir Har- 
nam Singh, of this same line—the only Christian Prince in 
India. 
The work in Dehra Doon was begun in 1853, by Rev. 
DEHRA J. S. Woodside. The Dehra Valley (Doon) lies be- 
tween the first range of hills called the Sewaliks and 
the higher range of the Himalayas. It is the seat of a cele- 
brated shrine of the Sikhs, and is visited by many thousands 
of devotees every year. Dehra Doon has become famous for 
its Christian girls’ boarding school, which, from very small 
beginnings, has grown to a position of large influence in the 
Native Christian community of Northern India The wisdom 
and self-denying zeal of the two ladies first connected with it 
—Mrs. Herron, the wife of the Rev. David Herron, and Miss 
Kate L. Beatty—laid foundations on which Miss Donaldson’s 
efficient administration has built it up to its present prosperity. 
It is of interest to note in this connection, as setting forth 
the purposes that underlie all such work in India, the points 
presented by Mr. Herron in a paper read before the Allaha- 
bad Missionary Conference in the early days: 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 35 


Ist.. To give the children the comforts and advantages of a home. 

2d. To give them the highest intellectual culture that they are 
capable of receiving. 
_ 3d. To bring them to Christ, and to cultivate in them the Chris- 
tian virtues. 

4th. To lead the native Christians to value the education of their 
daughters by making them pay for their support when they are able. 


Other activities at Dehra include a successful High School 
for boys, extensive zenana work, a Native Church and English 
services. 

Landour or Mussoorie’ Station, a delightful 
WOODSTOCK, sanatorium, thirteen miles from Dehra (at an 
LANDOUR elevation of 7,000 feet), is mainly of interest 
as the seat of Woodstock College. It was 
started in 1847 through the influence of the Dehra missionaries, 
and was moulded into its present effective form largely through 
the executive ability of Mrs. J. L. Scott, for many years its 
Principal. Its primary object was to furnish an education for 
the children of our missionaries, but it grew into a school of 
the higher grade, for the instruction not only of the daughters 
of missionaries (and the sons also, up to a certain age), but 
also for European, Eurasian and native Christian girls. The 
largest number of pupils is from the second of these classes, 
of mixed European and Indian descent—a class greatly needing 
the care and training afforded by such a school. 

The school was some years ago, under the principalship of 
Rev.-and Mrs. H. M. Andrews, raised to the College standard, 
and commands to a marked degree the confidence of all ranks 
of Anglo-Indian life. Additional property, recently acquired 
through the generosity of a Philadelphia friend, provides room 
for greatly needed expansion. 

Very early in the mission’s history (1836) Sabathu, 
SABATHU on the lower range (4,500 feet) of the Himalayas, 

was occupied, partly with a view to its usefulness 
as a sanatorium for invalid missionaries, partly as a centre 
for work among the Hill tribes. In the former regard it has 
not been valuable, but good work in the other line, and on 
general educational and evangelistic lines, has been done. It is 
best known, however, as the home of one of the largest leper 
asylums in India, with which the names of the late Dr. John 
Newton, Jr., and of Dr. M. B. Carleton are most intimately 
associated. 


36 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


The peculiar interest attaching to Hoshyarpur, 
HOSHYARPUR- which was occupied in 1867 by Rey. G. D. 

Moitra, is that it has been entirely under the 
control of native workers. The development along evangel- 
istic lines has fully justified the confidence placed in those in 
charge. Prosperous Christian communities have grown up in 
various towns and villages in the district, and there are five 
organized churches. The Christians, many of whom are Raj- 
puts, number over five thousand—the largest number in 
any one district in this mission. 

Dr. K. C. Chatterjee, who was one of Dr. Duff’s boys, and 
who is now “the grand old man” of the Panjab Mission, has 
been in charge here for more than forty years, and has 1m- 
pressed his personality in a marked degree on all the work. 
During his attendance on the Edinburgh Missionary Confer- 
ence, he was honored by Edinburgh University with the degree 
of D. D., and he was also appointed the member representing 
India on the Continuation Committee of the Conference. 

Hoshyarpur has a Girls’ School and Orphanage, under Mrs. 
Chatterjee’s efficient charge, with an enrollment of 60. This, 
and the Denny Hospital for women, which has ten beds and 
which in 1910 had about ten thousand new out-patients, 
are rendering fine service to the Christian women and girls of 
the district. 

This promising field was occupied by Dr. F. J. 
FEROZEPUR Newton in 1881, and extensive district work has 
been a marked feature from the beginning. 
Through the exertions of Mrs. Newton, a Woman’s Hospital 
was erected in 1893. In 1910, under Dr. Maud Allen, it re- 
ported 314 in-patients, and 12,702 visits from out-patients. 
The Church in Ferozepur is self-supporting. The Christian 
community in the villages numbers 500. 
This comparatively new station, opened by Rev. R. 
KASUR Morrison, has no institutional work, except a Girls’ | 
School conducted by the Z. B. M. Mission. Dr. C. W. 
Forman has been combining medical work with the evangelistic, 
and reports good progress, especially in the grace of giving, 
among the growing Christian groups scattered through the 
villages. He makes his trips largely on camel-back, he and 
the preacher riding on one, and two others carrying the tents 
and camp equipage ! 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. Sf 


Here, when it was an out-station of Ludhiana, Rev. 
KHANNA fF. P. Newton founded one of the first training 
schools for village preachers (since closed). Here 
is now a Boarding School for village boys, with an Industrial 
Department, giving special attention to weaving. The care and 
extension of the Christian community in the villages forms a 
large part of the missionary’s duty. 
Rev. H. Golak Nath, a son of the first preacher 
PHILLOUR in Jalandhar, is in charge of the work, which is 
almost entirely district evangelistic. A church was 
organized in 1909. 
This is another important centre for evangelistic 
RUPAR work, where Rev. P. C. Uppal long labored, and 
where there is now a Christian community of over 
one thousand, with Rev. U. S. G. Jones in charge. There are 
13 out-stations.* 

THE Nortu Inpia (FaRuKHABAD) Mrisston.—The upset- 
ting of a Ganges boat and the consequent loss of some parts 
of a printing press led to the establishment of a new mission. 
Rev. James McEwen, of the Ludhiana Mission’s reinforcing 

party of 1836, was left at Allahabad, the capital 
ALLAHABAD of the Northwest Provinces, to replace the loss; 

and the opening for work seemed so promising 
that it was decided that he should return and settle there. 
When Rev. Joseph Warren came in 1839, a press was estab- 
lished in a bathroom in his house; and a native boy, who had 
been cared for by the mission, was instructed in the art of 
printing, and later became not only one of the proprietors of 
the press, but an elder in the Presbyterian Church. The same 
year with Mr. Warren came Rev. J. H. Morrison, who, after 
his first furlough, joined the Ludhiana Mission and filled out 
forty-three years of service. It was at Allahabad that Dr. 
A. A. Hodge, too, afterward the great Princeton theologian, 
spent his two years of missionary life. 

Next after the press, educational work was taken up, and 
has always been a prominent feature. The Jumna Mission 
High School was one of the earliest in the province, and has 
done effective work through all the years. In connection with 
it a College Department, with Rev. A. H. Ewing, Ph. D., as its 
Principal, was opened in 1902, to meet the obvious need, not 
only for a Christian college at the Province’s educational cen- 


1One of these is Anandpur, where, in 1864, Rev. Levi Janvier, then stationed 
at Sabathu, was murdered by a Sikh. 


38 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


tre, but for an institution to be to this mission what the For- 
man Christian College has been to the Panjab Mission. 

The College has in these ten years exceeded in its develop- 
ments the fondest hopes of its founders, passing from four 
students to three hundred, and so affecting the High School 
that its attendance has grown from 250 to more than 750: thus 
bringing the student body on the beautiful campus lying be- 
tween the city and the Jamna River well past the thousand 
mark. Building after building has been added through the 
generosity of friends at home—John Wanamaker and Bethany 
Church providing three, other donors in Philadelphia another, 
and Princeton University alumni yet another; in spite of which 
it has been impossible to keep pace with the growing attend- 
ance. To the regular Arts Course, three others, which give 
promise of large results, have been added: the Technical De- 
partment, the Engineering (Electrical and Mechanical) and 
the Agricultural. As at Forman College, Bible instruction and 
the evangelistic aim are kept strongly to the front, and the 
hearts of all the staff were rejoiced in the fall of 1gto by 
the baptism of a Mohammedan student. 

In 1887, under the initiative of Rev. J. J. Lucas, a Boarding 
School for Christian girls, somewhat on the lines of the one 
at Dehra, was opened at Allahabad, teaching up to the Univer- 
sity entrance standard, and called for the services of three 
missionary ladies and several assistants. It has twice out- 
grown its quarters, till in 1902 the munificence of John 
Wanamaker provided new and commodious buildings in the 
Katra section of Allahabad, at the same time setting free the 
old buildings and grounds for the college. In 1910 the prin- 
cipal, Miss Forman, reported 136 girls in attendance, besides 12 
day-pupils. 

Another conspicuous feature at Allahabad is the “Sara 
Seward Hospital for Women,” growing out of work begun 
by the medical missionary for whom it was named, and reach- 
ing with its message of physical and spiritual healing thousands 
of women every year. There were in 1911 more than 20,000 
out-patients and 57 in-patients. 

Allahabad station is a double one, including the Jamna Mis- 
sion, on the bank of that river, not far from its confluence 
with the Ganges, and Katra station, a separate section of the 
city, three miles away. At each there is an organized church 
with a comfortable house of worship. Half the funds for the 
one at Katra, erected in 1900, were raised on the field some 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 39 


years before, largely through the efforts of Rev. J. M. Alex- 
ander. Still another church building, erected in 1888 in the 
heart of the city, is used for nightly evangelistic services, while 
its upper floor has been made over to the Y. M. C. A. as a 
reading-room. y 

A Blind Asylum and a Leper Asylum, both supported by 
Municipal and other non-mission funds, have always been un- 
der a missionary manager, and have been*the spiritual birth- 
. place of many devoted Christians. The Leper Asylum has of 
recent years, under the management of Mr. Higginbottom of 
the College, made great progress both in building and equip- 
ment and in spiritual results. 

Shortly after the occupation of Allahabad, 
FATEHGARH-  Fatehgarh,? with the native city, Farukhabad, 
FARUKHABAD three miles away, was opened (1838) as a 

station, with a boys’ orphanage, the fruit of 
the great famine of 1837, as its main work. The seventy or- 
phans had previously been cared for (some at Fatehgarh and 
some at Fatehpur) by two devoted Christian British officials. 
Out of and around this orphanage grew up an eminently suc- 
cessful tent factory and a flourishing Christian village. The 
former, passing through many vicissitudes, finally disappeared ; 
the latter, too, failed of permanent success and is greatly re- 
duced. The boys’ orphanage was many years ago united with 
the one at Saharanpur, and was replaced by a girls’ orphanage, 
which has now become as much a girls’ boarding school (for 
village Christian girls) as an orphanage. There are about 100 
in attendance. The boys’ institution at Barhptr has had a 
somewhat similar though briefer history. It was started by Rev. 
C. H. Bandy to accommodate waifs from the famines of 1897 
and ’99, but is now practically a boarding school, with a most 
efficient Industrial Department. Of the 103 boys last reported, 
27 were working in the Industrial School, 12 were in the 
Primary Department, and 64 were attending the High School 
in Farukhabad. 

There are four small church organizations in the double 
station; but the main work is in the villages of the district, 
where there are four more organized churches and 29 unor- 
ganized “groups,” in a Christian community of more than 
6,500. In the beginnings of this work, Rev. J. N. Forman was 


2Fatehgarh is the civil station, within the limits of which is Rakha, with its 
orphanage, Christian village, etc.; just outside of Farukhabad City is the village 
of Barhpur, where are two mission houses, boys’ orphanage, etc. 


40 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


for some years the leader; but its present large development 
has been under the management of Rev. C. H. Bandy. 

In Farukhabad city is a large and successful Boys’ High 
School, as well as a Vernacular School for Hindu and Mo- 
hammedan girls, and, in the neighborhood, several vernacular 
schools for boys. Zenana teaching and a dispensary for women 
complete the outline of the main features of this station. 

Of the many poifits at which serious damage was done dur- 
ing the dreadful Mutiny (1857), Fatehgarh was the only one 
where there was actual sacrifice of the lives of our mission- 
aries. Messrs. Freeman, Johnson, McMullen and Campbell, 
with their wives and two little children of the Campbells, 
joined the English residents in an attempt to escape down the 
Ganges from the unsafe fort at Fatehgarh to supposed safety 
at Cawnpore. They were captured at Bithur, marched eight 
miles to Cawnpore, and shot on the parade-ground next day 
with a hundred others, under the orders of the infamous Nana 
Sahib. The spirit in which they faced death is best shown by 
an extract from a letter written by Mrs. Freeman just before 
the end: 


We are in God’s hands, and we know that He reigns. We have no 
place to flee for shelter but under the covert of His wings, and there we 
are safe. Not but that He may suffer our bodies to be slain. If He 
does, we know that He has wise reasons for it. I sometimes think our 
deaths would do more good than we would do in all our lives; if so, 
His will be done. Should I be called to lay down my life, most joyfully 
will I die for Him who laid down His life for me. 


Meanwhile work had been begun in two other 
MAINPURI cities. Mainpuri, forty miles from Fatehgarh, 

a city of 30,000 inhabitants, the centre of a dis- 
trict of over 800,000, was occupied in 1843. A Boys’ High 
School has exerted a wide influence in the community. In its 
main hall a Sunday evening service in English for Hindus and 
Mohammedans has been held from time to time in recent years, 
and has been largely attended. There are vernacular schools 
both for boys and for girls, and extensive zenana work. The 
great development of recent years, under Rev. W. T. Mitchell 
and others, has been the work in the villages—similar to that 
in Farukhabad District—and a resulting Training School for 
workers at headquarters (serving, however, other stations as 
well). The Christian community is 2,651, with three organized 
churches (the one in Mainptri city is self-supporting), and 9 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 4l 


“unorganized groups.” At the Training School there is a 
three years’ course, with 49 men and boys in attendance (24 
in the first year, 16 in the second and 9g in the third) ; while 
25 women and girls are at work in the Women’s Department. 
There is also a Christian Boys’ Boarding School, with 25 in 
attendance. 
The only other city occupied before the Mutiny 
FATEHPUR was Fatehpur (1853), with a district similar to 
| Mainptri in size and character. It lies on the 
East Indian Railway, seventy-five miles from Allahabad. It 
has a small Christian community and a self-supporting church. 
The work is wholly evangelistic, but is supplemented by institu- 
tional work (Hospital, etc.) under the Union Zenana Mission- 
ary Society. 7 
Just such another city and district came under 
ETAWAH Christian influence when Etawah was occupied in 
1863. Here, too, evangelistic work, especially 
among the villages, has been a prominent feature, with the 
result that there are in the district one organized church and 
20 unorganized groups of Christians, and nearly 1,500 baptized 
members. Woman’s work has been energetically pushed, es- 
pecially by Miss Belz, who, after thirty years of constant 
preaching to women, in city, village and mela, was in 1902 
called to higher service. The little church in the city has its 
own pastor, and, like several others in the mission, has been 
making progress toward self-support. 
The mission’s only station in a Native state 
MORAR, GWALIOR was occupied when Rev. J. Warren in 1876 
began work in Morar, the capital of Gwa- 
lior, ruled by the Maharajah Sindhia. Mrs. Warren continued 
Sabbath school and evangelistic work through all the years after 
Dr. Warren’s death till her own, refusing to leave even when 
the British troops were withdrawn from Gwalior territory. 
Our mission is almost alone in this great State; and it has 
been a source of deepest regret that it has been impossible 
in recent years to effectively occupy this station. The recent 
assignment of Rev. Henry Forman to duty at this point puts 
a new aspect on the situation. 
In 1886 work was begun by Rev. J. F. Holcomb at 
JHANSI Jhansi, an important railway centre, and surrounded 
by a vast unoccupied field. One of the prominent 
features has been a large and efficient school for Bengali girls, 
managed by Mrs. Holcomb, as was also the extensive zenana 


42 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


work. A well-equipped reading-room has exerted a good in- 
fluence, and alongside of it there is a commodious building 
for the little Christian congregation. Much district work has 
been done, with encouraging results at the out-stations Mau- 
Raniptr and Barwa Sagar. At the latter point a hopeful work 
has recently begun among a timid Jungle Tribe, the: Sahariyas. 

Etah, which adjoins Fatehgarh, Mainpuri and Etawah, 
ETAH was for more than twenty years an out-station, some- 

times of Mainpuri, sometimes of Fatehgarh. In 1898 
there began to be an ingathering from among the out-caste 
community, a part of the mass movement toward Christianity 
from which the Methodist Mission’s workers had already been 
gaining such large results. In a year and a half, mainly under 
the leadership of Rev. H. Forman, the Christians in the dis- 
trict increased from twenty-five to more than five hundred. 
Accordingly in 1900 Etah was made a full station, and a mis- 
sion house and buildings for a boys’ boarding school of the 
lower grade and for a training class for village teachers were 
sanctioned. These were erected in 1902, and other buildings 
and at least one other institution—the Prentiss Girls’ Boarding 
School—have been added; but all these have not been enough 
to keep pace with the growth of the village community, which 
has now reached 5,506 (second only to Farukhabad), gathered 
in three organized churches and 29 unorganized groups. The 
outlook is more than encouraging, and Rev. A. G. McGaw, 
who has for some years been in charge of the work, sends out 
a call for help for a great advance, with the evangelization of 
the entire field as the distinct goal. He gives, in addition to 
the Master’s unchanged command, these cogent reasons: 


(1) God has given us a base from which to work. 

(2) He has turned more than 5,000 to accept the Lord. 

(3) He has given us a good number (about 100) of agents for 
the work. 

(4) Through the converts He has aroused the interest of other 
castes. 

(5) He has drawn hundreds of Chumars towards Christianity. 

(6) He is raising up volunteers from among the converts. 

(7) The desire for education for the children has grown. 

(8) Promising candidates for Christian work exceed our ability 
to train. 

(9) The Christian community has made decided gain in seeing. its 
responsibility for its neighbors’ salvation. . 


_ In connection with the great work in this general field, it 
1s interesting to note that the Mission has decided (Oct., 1911) 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 43 


to occupy the out-station Kasganj as a full station, assigning 
Rev. J. H. Lawrence to duty there. 

Closely connected with this mass movement is the 
CAWNPORE occupation, in 1901, of Cawnpore, “the Manches- 

ter of North India,” where more than forty thou- 
sand hands are employed in the various mills and factories. It 
was occupied partly to meet the need of our converts already 
there, gathered from various stations, and partly because of the 
splendid opening it offered in the way of employment for un- 
skilled village Christians. A church has been organized, and 
there is every prospect of an effective work as soon as the force 
in the mission permits of its being properly manned. 


THe WEsTERN INpIA Mission. Its field lies about a hun- 
dred miles south of Bombay, and is cut in two by the Ghats, 
a range of mountains parallel to and forty or fifty miles away 
from the coast. Kolhapur State, with a population of nearly 
a million, lies east of this range. The adjoining districts, in 
which are no missionaries, have a population of nearly two 
millions. Add to this the Konkan, the strip between the Ghats 
and the sea, and you have over three and a half million to be 
reached by this mission. The principal language is Marathi. 
Established in 1853 by Rev. Royal G. Wilder, who continued 
his service till 1876, and who after his return to America was 
the founder and till his death in 1887 the editor of the Mzs- 
sionary Review of the World, the mission was taken over by 
our Board in 1870. Every phase of the life of the mission 
has been more or less affected during recent years by the ter- 
rible scourges of famine and bubonic plague, which, beginning 
in 1896, attacked this region in full force. Famine left as 
its legacy over one thousand waifs, most of them orphans; and 
both famine and plague, with all the burdens they brought upon 
the missionaries, gave wonderful opportunities for exempli- 
fying the true spirit of the Gospel. 

~ Kolhaptr, where Mr. Wilder laid his foundations, 
KOLHAPUR js the capital of the State of the same name, and 
has a population of about 45,000. It has to the 
Hindu mind a high reputation for sanctity, a common legend 
being that the gods in council once pronounced it the most 
sacred spot on earth. | 
_ During the famine of 1876 an orphanage had been estab- 
lished at Kolhaptr, from which in 1888 the boys were removed 


44 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


to Sangli to form the nucleus of a boarding school for Chris- 
tian boys, while the girls were retained as the beginning of one 
for girls. There are now 210 girls in the institution, receiving 
training not only along spiritual and intellectual lines, but also 
in all domesticindustries. In July, 1902, new dormitories and a 
fine school building, capable of accommodating three hundred 
girls, were added. There is also the “Alice Home” for women, 
where 22 are 1n attendance. 

The station has recently taken over from the Maharajah a 
hospital for women that promises large usefulness. 

The fruit of the years of missionary labor is seen in a 
church of 205 members (1911), with 21 at Vadgav out-station. 
To the training of these Christians, Rev. and Mrs. J. M. Go- 
heen, ably seconded by Pastor Shivaramji, who still is in the 
harness, largely devoted their lives. Another pair of names 
closely identified with the progress of this station are those of 
Rev. and Mrs. Galen W. Seiler, the former of whom, after 
thirty years of successful service, broke down under the strain 
of 1900, compelling their return to America in 1902. 

Ratnagiri was opened as a station in 1873, but 
RATNAGIRI it was never fully manned till, after being virtu- 

ally abandoned for a while, it was reoccupied in 
1891. It is a city of 15,000 inhabitants, on the coast, 80 miles 
south of Bombay. It is the most isolated station in the Mis- 
sion, and the only one in British territory, the others being in 
the feudatory States. It is the centre of work for the Kon-, 
kan, a strip of territory about 200 miles long by 40 miles wide, 
and densely populated. There are no other missionaries within 
seventy miles, except the ladies of the Zenana Bible and Medi- 
cal Mission, who work in co-operation with our Mission. Much 
touring has been done in this district, sometimes including vil- 
lages where people fled at the approach of the first white 
visitors they had ever seen. 

There is a church with 105 members; also an orphanage, a 
Widows’ Home, and a number of day- schools, polenta a 
Boys’ High School. 

Vengurle, 90 miles south of Ratnagiri on the 
VENGURLE coast, was occupied in 1900; and Rev. and Mrs. 

Wm. H. Hannum have done pioneer work in 
the midst of much opposition. Four schools report a total of 
139 pupils. A church organized in 1902 now has 38 members. 
Dr. Goheen, with his hospital and dispensary, reached 224 in- 
patients in 191t and more than 10,000 out-patients. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 45 


Sangli, the capital of a small State of the same name, 
SANGLI was opened as a station in 1884. The plague was 
so terrible here that in less than a year 5,000 died, 
or about one-third of the population. The Boarding School 
has 64 boys in a modern building, with a well-equipped In- 
dustrial Department and a High School course. An organized 
church of 55 members is housed in a good building, and has a 
settled pastor. 
Kodoli is a small market town, about 14 miles 
KODOLI north of Kolhapur. When the station was: 
(PANHALA) opened as an out-station in 1881 it was thought 
that Panhala on the hill would be a more health- 
ful location, but experience proved that Kodoli was a better 
centre for reaching the people. The patient labor of twenty 
years, crowned by the charity and self-sacrifice displayed in 
caring for the starving and plague-stricken, was rewarded by a 
wonderful blessing. In 1900 over two hundred adults, repre- 
senting twenty-five towns, were baptized within a few days; 
and in 1901 Kodoli was made a full station. The good old 
native pastor, since called to his reward, said: “The growth of 
the Christian religion depends upon the lives of the Christians: 
seeing the compassion of the missionaries, the poor and the 
great were convinced that they were the servants of the true 
God.” | 

With the lapse of years, the “Brownie Orphanage,” which 
was the fruit of the famine of 1900, and with which the name 
of Miss A. A. Brown was so intimately associated, has passed 
away; and its place has been taken by the station school where 
over a hundred boys and girls, boarding in separate dormitories, 
are not only taught book knowledge, but, beside doing a good 
part of the housework, receive systematic manual training— 
Sloyd for boys and sewing for the girls. 

There is a hospital, temporarily closed, and a dispensary— 
which ministered to nearly 3,000 new cases in IQII. 

There are two churches: one at Kodoli, with 309 members 
and one at Aitavde out-station with 51. The former is self- 
supporting, and has a Sabbath School with an average attend- 
ance of over I50. 

The poverty of the Christians in the district may be gath- 
ered from the fact that 340 of them own a total of 61 acres 
of land. That the Christians are awake to social and moral 
issues will be evident from the following extract from a recent 
report regarding Aitavde: 


40 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


The question of local option came up in this town. The Government 
official, a Brahmin, admitted that he was between two fires—his own 
religion forbidding the use of liquor, and the Government wishing 
an increase of revenue. A meeting was held in the town to test the 
question.» A large crowd gathered, and the Christians brought the 
petition they had prepared. On the suggestion of the officer, the 
names of many of the most influential Hindus of the place were added 
below those of the Christians. As a result the saloon was prohibited. 


Miraj, occupied in 1892 by Dr. Wanless, holds an im- 
MIRAJ portant position, because of its railway connection and 
its population of 25,000. The medical work is prom- 
inent. By the generosity of Mr. J. H. Converse of Philadel- 
phia, a fine hospital and dispensary were opened in 1894, and 
in 1902 “The Bryn Mawr Annex” provided one of the finest 
operating rooms in India, a lecture-room and laboratory for 
the Medical School, and accommodation for six private patients, 
one of the wards being for Europeans. The hospital has 75 
beds. There were 1,668 in-patients treated during 1911, and 
during the previous year 2,996 surgical operations (7550 of 
them major) were performed, including those at the dispen- 
sary, where there was an attendance of 25,320 (10,346 new 
cases). The new cases in I9II rose to 15,282. The out-sta- 
tion dispensaries, located at Ashta and Vita, accounted for 
11,664 more in attendance, nearly half of them new cases. 
There is at Miraj a Medical School connected with the 
hospital, and also a Training School for Nurses—both doing 
effective work. The organized and self-supporting church, 
with a communicant membership of 49, holds its services in 
the dispensary. A suitable chapel is one of the things hoped 
for. 
Says Dr. Wanless: 


There is scarcely a class or caste in Western India not represented 
among our patients. Many Christians come from a distance, and their 
influence has always been for good. Hospital work is a growing 
leveller of caste. It is an education in itself for these people to come 


into a place where Brahmans and out-castes are treated absolutely 
alike. 


A Lepér Asylum, built with funds from the “Mission to 
the Lepers in India and the East,” was opened in 1go1, and 
ten of the inmates were baptized in 1902. There were 56 
inmates in 1910, and a neat little chapel had been added to 
their buildings. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 47 


In 1899 four missionary ladies went out with 
THE VILLAGE the purpose of settling in some desirable centre 
SETTLEMENT, whence they could have easy access to the 
ISLAMPUR villages, and influence the women’s lives by 

daily contact. The work which they started at 
Islampur, under Miss Wilder’s leadership, has now been taken 
over as an integral part of our Mission. 3 


SPECIAL PHASES oF MIssION Work. 


While the one supreme and definite aim of all missionary 
effort in India—as the world over—is so to present Christ 
crucified to men and women as to enable them to know Him 
personally and accept Him as their only Saviour, yet the 
lines along which that effort is made are not only widely 
various, but some of them are more or less peculiar to par- 
ticular fields or missions. Some points, accordingly, in connec- 
tion with the work of our church in India, call for special men- — 
tion: 


1. Woman's Work for Woman—The seclusion of women, 
with its underlying assumption of the extreme frailty of femi- 
nine morality, is the rule among Hindus and Mohammedans 
alike, especially in North India. Village women are compara- 
tively more free than those in cities and towns, and low-caste 
women and menials have a larger degree of liberty everywhere. 
But in no case can women be reached with the men or by men. 
The work, if done at all, must be done by women. Of its 
importance there can be no question. The ignorance, bigotry 
and superstition of the women are almost past belief, and con- 
stitute one of the greatest obstacles to the progress of Chris- 
tianity. The writer has in mind an educated Hindu who ex- 
pressed his cordial conviction of the truth of Christianity, and 
who was found to be kept back from becoming a Christian by 
the bigotry of the women of his household. Illustrations could 
be multiplied indefinitely. On the other hand, the winning 
of the women means the winning of the home: the winning 
of the home means the winning of the next generation. Work 
for women, therefore, especially if carried out in systematic 
co-operation with that for men, is one of the most important 
factors in the evangelization of India. 

In the early days, owing to the unsettled state of the coun- 
try, the way was not open for the work of single women. But 


48 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


missionaries were almost invariably accompanied by wives, 
who became zealous co-workers in the propagation of the 
faith. They always had a sphere of missionary labor in the 
environment of their own homes, and in the homes of native 
Christians, in the education and training of orphan children 
rescued from death by famine and neglect, and finally in the 
beginning of work for heathen girls and women in school and 
zenana.*' For the education of men soon led to a desire for 
or, at least, a toleration of, female education, and thus to the 
opening of many homes to the missionary and her assistants: 
till now for many years not only married women, but hun- 
dreds of single women as well, have found “a great door and 
effectual’? opened to them in all parts of the country. They 
do not hesitate to go into isolated towns and villages and under- 
take work far away from the abodes of European neighbors. 
Beside the work of systematic teaching of women and girls 
secluded in zenanas, they conduct orphanages and day-schools 
for both non-Christian and Christian girls and boarding 
schools for Christians. As village Christians have multiplied, 
especially in connection with mass movements, a peculiarly 1m- 
portant field has developed in the training of the women and 
girls of these communities, who are often densely ignorant 
and superstitious. There is perhaps no more urgent call in 
India today than along this line. Many women, again, have 
gone out with special medical training, and have established 
hospitals and dispensaries for women and children, where thou- 
sands of patients have received medical aid and been nursed 
back to health. 

The recognized pioneer in zenana missions was Miss Cooke, 
of the C. M. S., who, in 1821, opened a school for Hindu 
girls in Calcutta. Miss Wakefield seems to have been the first 
(1835) to gain actual access to zenanas; while systematic work 
in this line, begun in 1840 by a suggestion from Prof. T. 
Smith, which was carried out by Rev. and Mrs. John Fordyce 
(all of the Free Church of Scotland), was fully developed 
some years later by Mrs. Sale and Mrs. Mullens (of the 
Baptist Mission). The pioneer in medical work for women 
was Clara Swain, M. D., of the American Methodist Mission. 
The beginnings of work for women in the American Presby- 
terian Mission date from the early fifties, when in the girls’ 
orphanage at Ludhiana, with which the names of Mrs. Eliza- 


1Zenana (more properly sandné from Persian zan, a woman), means the 
women’s portion of a house, as marddnd means the men’s. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 49 


beth Newton, Mrs. Rudolph, Mrs. Mary R. Janvier and Mrs. 


Myers are conspicuously associated, effective work was or- 
ganized. 


The results of woman’s work in India are well stated by 
Mr. Graham, in part, as follows :? 


The cruelty and immorality connected with child marriage have been 
so far mitigated by the raising of the legal “age of consent” to twelve 
years. The deplorable position, sometimes amounting to a living death, 
of the 2,000,000° child-widows is being ameliorated. Some of them 
have been remarried, and others have escaped from the fetters of 
‘centuries by confessing Christ and taking refuge in such homes for 
widows as that of Pandita Ramabai at Poona. Eighty years ago not 
one female in 100,000 is said to have been able to read and write, but 
now (1808), through the missionary and Government schools, the 
proportion of literates and learners is six per thousand. 4 

The regular visits of 700 foreign and Eurasian* and 3,000 Native 
Christian women to 40,000 houses are profoundly influencing the home 
life of India and preparing the way for a mighty change. 


Possibly even more significant are the words of an en- 
lightened Hindu paper (The Indian Social Reformer, March 
15, 1903), which says: 


Though cut off from the parent community by religion and by 
prejudice and intolerance, the Indian Christian woman (herself the 
fruit of woman’s work) has been the evangelist of education to hun- 
dreds and thousands of Hindu homes. Simple, neat and kindly, she 
has won her way to the recesses of orthodoxy, overcoming a strength 
and bitterness of prejudice of which few outsiders have an adequate 
conception. . . . To these brave and devoted women, wherever 


they are, friends of female education all over the country will heartily 
wish “God-speed.” 


So great has been the success of the work and so obvious 
has the need for it at last been seen to be, that not only has 
Government opened girls’ schools in all the larger cities, but 
even Hindus and Mohammedans have fallen in line and have 
organized flourishing schools for girls. The Aryas, for in- 
stance, have a girls’ boarding school in Ferozepore with more 
than 200 in attendance. 

2. Christian Literature —The preparation of Christian lit- 
erature, including the translation of the Bible, has naturally 
had a conspicuous and early place in the history of all mis- 


2‘Missionary Expansion,” etc., p. 117. 

8 There seems to be some mistake in this; for while the census of 1901 
gave a total of 25,891,936 widows, the number under the age of 15 was 391,147. 
For this whole subject, see Chap. VI of Eddy’s ‘India Awakening.” 

4Of mixed European and native parentage. 


50 HISTORICAL. SKETCH OF 


sions—notably so in that of our missions in North India. Dr. 
Sherring, of the London Missionary Society, and Dr. Mur- 
doch,® of the Christian Literature Society, agree in giving to 
our missionaries the first place in this regard in all Northern 
India. The mechanical part of the work has been done by 
the two great mission presses at Ludhiana and Allahabad, which 
have long since passed out of mission management into the 
hands of efficient Native Christian proprietors. 

The literary end of the work has called forth the activities 
of many of the best minds among the missionaries, and good 
service has been rendered, too, by some of the leaders of the 
Indian Church. The range covered has been wide, and in- 
cludes® the following: (a). Bible Translation, in which de- 
partment the conspicuous names are John Newton, Levi Jan- 
vier and F. J. and E. P. Newton in Panjabi; Lowenthal in 
Pushtu (the language of the Afghans) ; James Wilson in Urdu; 
and Owen, Ullmann and Kellogg in Hindi. (D). Commentaries. 
—Here the work has not much more than begun, being limited 
to portions of Genesis, the Psalms, Isaiah, Jeremiah, portions of 
the Minor Prophets, the Gospels, Romans, First and Second 
Corinthians, Ephesians and Colossians." Almost all of these 
are in Urdu (Roman character), Jeremiah alone being in 
Hindi; and the writers are John Newton, Sr., and Jr., Scott, 
ure W. F. Johnson and Lucas. In (c) Theology, the 
prominent writers are Rev. Messrs. Ishwari Das, J. J. Caleb 
and W. F. Johnson. (d). Controversial writings.—Here the 
out-put has naturally been large, covering both Hinduism and 
Islam and ranging from extensive treatises in English, (e. g., 
Wherry on the Quran) for the use especially of missionaries, 
to four-page leaflets in the vernaculars for gratuitous*® dis- 
tribution to Hindus and Mohammedans. In this department 
one of the most effective tracts ever sent forth in any land is 
Mr. Ullman’s Dharm Tula (“Weighing of Religions”), to the 
reading of which many a convert in every part of North India 
traces his conversion. (e). Periodic Literature—Two re- 
ligious papers are published by our missions: the Makhzan-i- 


5 Dr. Murdoch, who reached India in 1844, did far more than any other 
one man for the creation of Christian literature for the English speaking 
community. 

® See also article by Rev. J. J. Lucas, in Indian Evangelical Review for July 
and October, 1886. 

oT he style and language of Dr. John Newton, Jr.’s commentary on Colossians 
are so admirable that the book has been made a text-book for new missionaries. 

SIt is the uriform policy to sel] all books and tracts, though at a nominal 
price. Only these leaflets are given away. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 51 


Masihi (“Christian Treasury”), a fortnightly paper, estab- 
lished in 1867 at Allahabad, and the Niir-Afshdn (“Dispenser 
of Light”), established in 1872 at Lodiana, both intended for 
the building up of the spiritual life of the church, though the 
Nur-Afshdn enters also the controversial field. (f). Mis- 
cellaneous—Hymnology, Church History, Literature for the 
Church at home and many other lines of effort might 
well be enumerated, but space permits the mention of but 
three books more, Kellogg’s Hindi Grammar, which has 
become a classic, E. P. Newton’s Panjabi Grammar, and Zabiur 
aur Git, a splendid collection of hymns, which has been adopted 
not only by our own churches, but by some of those of the 
London Missionary Society, and which includes not only trans- 
lations (from both English and German) and original hymns 
in foreign metres, but nearly a hundred original hymns 
(bhajans and ghazals) set to native airs, besides a selection 
of chants. Among the authors are both natives and foreigners, 
Rev. I. Fieldbrave’s name leading the van in the former class, 
and Mr. Ullmann’s in the latter. An edition with music—the 
first musical book ever printed in India—was issued in 1808. 

It is to be noted that since the organization of the Panjab 
and North India Bible Societies and Tract Societies and the 
Christian Literature Society of Madras, the main part of the 
literary work of our missionaries has been done in co-opera- 
tion with those agencies. 

One development which in this connection needs to be noted 
is the greatly increased activity of the non-Christian Press. 
Many magazines have sprung up, like “East and West,” “Hin- 
dustan Review,” etc., all attacking Christianity. A present 
great need is the establishment of a high class Christian 
Review, to stand for the united forces of Christianity in the 
warfare still to be waged. 

3. Medical Work and Leper Asylums—Although India is 
supplied with a well-equipped Government Medical Depart- 
ment, with hospitals and dispensaries in the chief cities and 
towns, there is still a large sphere for medical missionaries, 
especially for women. Sometimes the work is done while tour- 
ing through towns and villages, more often it is localized at 
hospitals and dispensaries in large centres. In either case, 
not only is prejudice removed and God’s love made tangible, 
but constant opportunity is given for the direct proclamation 
of the Gospel. Every patient hears the message from either 
missionary or assistant, and usually takes home on the back 


52 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


of the very dispensary ticket some portion of truth from God’s 
Word. Hospitals or dispensaries, the majority of them for 
women and children only, are to be found at Ferozepore, La- 
hore, Ambala, Sabathu, Jagraon, Hoshyarpur, Allahabad, 
Fatehgarh, Kolhapur, Kodoli, Miraj, and at certain sub-sta- 
tions. There are twenty in all, at which in 1910 more than one 
hundred thousand patients were treated. 

Our missionaries have not been unmindful of the lepers, 
of whom there are about 250,000 in the Empire. Seven 
asylums® are at present under Mission management, though 
the funds are provided partly by Government, partly by vol- 
untary contributions on the field—sometimes from non-Chris- 
tians—and still more by donations from the Edinburgh “Mis- 
sion to Lepers in India and the East.” The asylum at Ambala 
was built in 1858 with funds contributed by Europeans in the 
Cantonments. The one at Sabathu was begun as a general 
poor-house by the British officers and men who returned from 
the Kabul war in 1844. 

4. Educational Work—The Gospel and education have 
always gone hand in hand, especially where the bearers of 
the Evangel have been Presbyterians. But education is not 
looked upon as an end: it is a means to an end. In the case 
of Christians it is to make them an effective instrument for 
the uplifting of their countrymen, in the case of Hindus and 
Mohammedans it is both to remove prejudice and to bring 
them within the reach of the truth. The pupils in both school 
and college not only have the Gospel preached to them in the 
opening religious exercises of every school day, not only are 
they daily taught a lesson from the Bible by competent Chris- 
tian teachers, and so grounded in the fundamentals of Chris- 
tianity, but they are brought into constant personal contact, 
during the most impressionable period of their lives, with men 
of Christian faith and character. 

The importance of this work, especially in the higher grades, 
is emphasized by the present-day crisis in the religious atti- 
tude of educated young India. Higher education has largely 
been Government education, which again has necessarily been 
religiously neutral, and therefore always non-theistic and prac- 
tically anti-theistic. Educated young Hindus and Mohamme- 
dans can seldom continue to believe what their fathers be- 
lievéd. They are cutting loose from the old moorings, and 


® At Sabathu, Ambalé, Dehra Duin, Saharanptr, Dakhini (Jalandhar), Allahabad 
and Miraj. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 53 


drifting out into the darkness of materialism and agnosticism. 
Christ-filled educational work, supplemented by the effective 
efforts of the Y. M. C. A. in Government institutions, seems 
the one solution of the problem. Said Dr. Chatterjee, of Hosh- 
yarpur, some years ago: “I can testify after an experience 
of forty years’ service in missionary work—educational as 
well as evangelistic—that I consider a Christian college, which 
has as its chief aim the conversion of its students, to be the 
best evangelistic agency we have in connection with our Mis- 
sion’’—this although the immediate results in baptisms are 
so small. 

All this has been increasingly appreciated by our mission- 
aries: all the stations have primary schools, several have high 
schools, the college at Lahore has been doing its work for 
nearly thirty years, and the one at Allahabad ten years ago 
started on a similar career of usefulness. In all 269 institu- 
tions are reported, with eleven thousand pupils. 

One point of weakness, the seriousness of which has been 
increasingly realized, is the relatively large proportion of non- 
Christian teachers employed in mission schools, especially in 
those of the higher grade. The main difficulty has been the 
insufficiency of the supply of competent Christian teachers ; 
and it is now proposed by the two northern missions that a 
teacher-training course be added to Allahabad College to help 
make good this lack. The importance of the matter has not 
been overlooked in the past: it is sure to be still more earnestly 
pressed in the days to come. 

5. Mass Movements and Work among the Out-castes— 
Very different from the educational crisis has been the one 
produced by the socio-religious movement that has been gather- 
ing momentum for the past thirty years. The “submerged 
fifth” of the Hindu population of North India, so low down 
that they had to “‘reach up to touch bottom,” began in the early 
eighties to respond to the call of the Gospel. The Methodists 
in the United Provinces and the United Presbyterians in the 
Panjab began at about the same time to gather in large num- 
bers from this community. The work extended so rapidly 
that in the latter half of that decade three missions in the 
Panjab (U. P., Scotch Established and our own) had baptized 
nearly 12,000 of the Chuhras. The movement spread to 
almost every district of the Panjab Mission, and later to the 
Etah (see p. 40), Farukhabad, Mainpuri and Etawah districts 
of the North India Mission. 


54 HISTORICAL) SKETCH OF 


That mixed motives enter into such mass movements is 
unquestionable. It is obvious that these out-castes have com- 
paratively little to lose in becoming Christians—though even 
they often suffer persecution—and they have much to gain. 
They cannot fail to see that Christianity means wplift—intel- 
lectual, social, financial as well as spiritual—and it is little 
wonder that the highest motives are not always uppermost. 
But back of the movement God’s Spirit is undoubtedly work- 
ing, and in it lie vast possibilities for the growth of the King- 
dom. Remember that ninety per cent. of the people of India live 
in villages and in towns of less than 10,000 inhabitants; and 
that a considerable proportion of these village communities 
are made up of the “untouchables.” . Nor are there wanting 
indications that a similar mass movement is preparing among 
the great multitude of the next higher class—the lowest of 
those in the caste limits—the Chumars (“leather-workers’’). 

One important question connected with this great work fs 
presented in the following words recently used by Dr. Gris- 
wold, of the Panjab Mission: 


Of recent years a much more liberal policy has been pursued than 
formerly with reference to the admission of out-caste converts. Much 
greater stress is laid upon instruction after baptism than upon the 
amount given before baptism. It is realized also that just as the 
children of immigrants into America become thoroughly assimilated 
and Americanized, whereas their parents retain to the end something 
of the manners and accent of the land from which they came, so is it 
with the low-caste converts. Their children may become really Chris- 
tianized, even though their parents are handicapped by ignorance, 
stupidity and inability to adjust themselves fully to the requirements 
of a new situation. And there are notable exceptions to the general 
rule of stupidity. Gulla, a Panjabi sweeper, is a mighty man of prayer. 
Labhu, a watchman in the Sharakpur division, has won golden opinions 
from all sorts of people, and at the first communion in his village gave 
so liberally that he had to be restrained. The writer of these words 
made a tour of Sharakpur in April, 1911, and was mightily impressed 
by what he saw. In spite of much crudity there was the throb and 
stir of life. 


It is difficult not to raise the question whether this “more lib- 
eral policy” may not have gone too far, whether the Korean plan 
of prolonged instruction and testing before baptism may not 
be nearer right, and whether there is not a weakness some- 
where in a system which baptizes thousands of adultst who 


1The four Presbyteries which make up our two northern Missions reported 
to the Indian General Assembly in December, to11, a total of 22,537 baptized 
adults, of whom only 7,319 were communicants, or less than one-third of the 
whole number. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 55 


are not admitted for years, if ever, to full church membership 
and to the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. 

Whatever one’s view on this point, there can be no question 
as to the seriousness of the new problems that have been 
created by the accession of multitudes from the “depressed” 
classes. One is the problem of the increased percentage of 
illiteracy which has resulted.? It is to be met partly by a cor- 
responding increase in the number of primary schools in the 
villages, and partly by such an order as that passed recently 
by Lahore Presbytery, that all village preachers shall give 
‘a definite portion of their time each day to the teaching of 
children. And this suggests the still more serious problem of 
finding enough suitable pastors and teachers to meet the need. 
The problem finds partial solution in the opening of the village 
pastors’ course in Saharanpur Seminary and in the establish- 
ment of such Training Schools as those at Mainpuri and Moga. 
Final solution is surely to be sought in the prayer for such a 
spiritual movement in the Church both in India and at home 
as shall raise up a vastly increased force of workers. The fields 
are white unto the harvest: the laborers are pitifully few. 

One other phase of the matter needs to be touched upon. 
It used to be feared that extensive effort to reach the “sub- 
merged” would make the Church a Church of the out-castes, 
and permanently alienate the higher classes. It has come to 
pass, however, that this work of the Christian Church has 
become its most powerful apologetic in India, and that caste- 
people, under its constraining influence, are themselves begin- 
ning to turn their attention to the “depressed,” and organizing 
movements for their uplift. Here is what Rev. Dr. C. B. 
Newton, of Jalandhar, has to say on this general subject: 


Let us strive-to utilize these mass movements in the conviction that 
in these lies the possibility of Christianizing the teeming millions of 
India within a reasonably short period. We may discover that the 
caste system, which has been such a tremendous hindrance, is to become 
a wonderful help to the spread of the Gospel. The great barrier will 
be turned into a great bond, the powerful weapon in the hands of the 
adversary, wrested from his grasp, will be turned against him to his 
own discomfiture, Hindus and Mohammedans are awake to the serious 
significance of these conditions in India, and are making overtures to 
the low-caste people, the so-called “untouchables,” to enter their re- 
spective folds, promising to fraternize with them, and to assist them, 
by establishing schools and in other ways, in their efforts to rise 
from their position of degradation. Lately, Hindu Samajes and Sikh 


2In some districts only two per cent. of the village Christians above seven 
years of age can read; in none does the literacy’ reach ten per cent. 


56 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


Sabhas in different parts of the country have been publishing resolutions 
to this effect, and have been starting what they call ‘‘Missions to the 
Depressed Classes.” Their motives seem to be a curious mixture of 
Machiavellian ingredients. All the more does it behoove the Church 
of Christ to make persistent and concerted efforts to proclaim to these 
people that Gospel which, indeed, is glad tidings to the poor and needy, 
and which alone can give true light to the blind, and true liberty to 
the captives and oppressed. 


6. Theological Schools—In the early days candidates for 
the Ministry received private instruction from individual mis- 
sionaries. But as the number of candidates increased, the 
lavish expenditure of time involved in this method made it 
obviously expedient to set apart certain men for this work at 
a central point. A theological class was formed at Allahabad 
under Messrs. Brodhead, Kellogg and Wynkoop. Later 
(1884) the Synod of India took the matter into its immediate 
control and established the Seminary at Saharanpur, with 
Messrs. Wherry and J. C. R. Ewing as the first teachers. The 
need for workers with less elaborate training has, as mentioned 
above, led to the establishment of theological schools on a 
humbler scale, one at Moga and others at Mainpuri and Etah. 

As many of the students are married men, and come to the 
schools accompanied by their families, a grand field for work — 
is opened to the wives of the Professors, which they do not 
fail to improve. While our future native pastors are being 
fitted to preach the gospel, their wives are being trained to 
become not only more intelligent Christians, but better house- 
keepers and more useful members of society. 

The hope of church extension in India lies, needless to say, 
in the development of the church from within. These schools 
are preparing ministers and evangelists for the conquest of 
the land. Many faithful preachers have gone out into the 
great harvest field and much of the ingathering of recent years 
is to be traced to them. 


7. The Indian Church.—From the very first, wherever the 
number of converts warranted, churches have been organized. 
The pastoral duties were long performed by missionaries, and 
still are in some cases; but the securing of pastors from among 
themselves has always been the goal presented to the churches, 
and in recent years marked progress has been made in this 
direction. Self-support has also been urged—though not per- 
haps with all the emphasis possible; and in this direction, too, 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 57 


good progress can be recorded. For instance, in the Panjab 
Mission, in addition to the 82 partly organized groups, there 
are 24 fully organized churches, of which three are entirely 
self-supporting, and many of the others bear a large share of 
their pastors’ salary. In addition to this local self-support, 
the churches in this Mission contribute increasingly (they 
began in 1897) toward a Home Mission fund in the hands of 
the Presbytery of Lahore or of Lodiana, as the case may be. 
This fund is supplemented by the Mission on a sliding scale 
(beginning with $3.00, to $1.00 given by the churches), but 
is managed wholly by the Presbytery, the native brethren 
taking a leading part. The same plan has also been in opera- 
tion in the Presbyteries of Allahabad, Farukhabad and Kol- 
hapur, though with differences in detail (e. g., Allahabad began 
with a grant of $2.00, to $1.00 contributed by the churches). 

A practical question that suggests itselt calls for a fair 
answer: What is the character of the Indian converts? Here 
is the answer of a careful observer :* 


It would be easy, on the one hand, to take individual cases of men 
and women who have exhibited the ripest fruits of Christian experi- 
ence, and who, in Apostolic fervour and patient suffering for Christ’s 
sake, might be placed in the front ranks of Christian saints. On the 
other hand, we might point to large numbers, but yesterday out of the 
thraldom of grossest idolatry or debasing devil-worship, who as yet 
are ignorant and weak, and on whom the shadow of the old customs 
still rests. . . . As far as criminal statistics go, they tell in favor 
of the Christians; for in a return for Southern India, it was stated 
that, while there was one criminal to every 447 and 728 of the Hindu 
and Mohammedan population, respectively, there was only one in 
every 2,500 of the Christians. 


To which may be added Sir Wm. Muir’s testimony that 
“they are not sham nor paper converts, as some would have 
us believe, but good and honest Christians, and many of them 
of a high standard.” No better confirmation of this can be 
found than in a brief sketch prepared a few years ago of a 
life then just closed in Kodoli (Western India Mission) :* 


Twenty-five years ago, Satoba Ranbhisi, a guru ot his caste, came 
to the Rev. Mr. Hull at Kolhaptr, asking to be taught the religion of 
the Bible. He gave up to him the strange collection of heathen books, 
in the study and recitation of which he had spent years, saying, Le 
has been like trying to get a fist full of water: nothing remains after 


8 Mr. Graham in ‘Missionary Expansion,” p. 128. ; 5h 
4The facts are taken partly from Mr. J. P. Graham’s account in the Mission 
Report, 1902, partly from an article by Miss Brown in Woman’s Work for Woman, 


58 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


all my effort.” For some time Christian truth, too, seemed of but 
little avail. But soon there came a change: the last chapters of John’s 
Gospel reached his soul, and a life principle was implanted. Originally 
of one of the lowest castes, in time he won the respect of all classes 
—even of the Brahmans. When he first went back to his village after 
baptism, his own family kept him out of his home and refused him a 
drink of water; the people of the village drove him out of it. For 
months he lived in the fields near-by, subjected to the jeers and taunts 
of his former friends. But through it all he remained loyal to the 
Master, and bore insults and persecution without complaint. In that 
same community he became pastor of the largest church in the Mission, 
with relatives and neighbors on the membership roll! 

He was “on fire for souls. In his home, in the fields, on tour, his 
one thought was to make men acquainted with Christ. He had found 
One whom his soul loved, and he would burn out his life till he had 
made every one else love Him. The miles he walked, the sermons he 
preached are past our counting. Often, breakfastless, he was off to 
villages preaching; returning hungry at noon, his faithful wife would 
have to lock him and his dinner into the little study, or he would have 
given it all to some one hungrier than himself. So loving was he, that 
infliction of church discipline was his hardest duty, yet he enforced 
it, even in the case of his own nephew. The Bible was his one book, 
prayer his vital breath. His little 6x3 study in Kodoli, where he 
could get a man alone with God, was the gate of heaven to many a 
soul. On the day of greatest in-gathering to the church, October 7, 
1900, he baptized 161 adults, on the following Sabbath 51; and-to the 
day that God took him, the church grew.” 

Just before his fatal illness, he had a premonition of death, saying, 
exultantlv, “I am going to my Father”; and when visited near the end 
by Mr. Graham, he begged him not to pray for his recovery. Never 
has Kodoli witnessed such a scene as the throng of hundreds of men, 
women and children—-Hindus as well as Christians—that followed his 
body, wrapped in white muslin and laid on a stretcher, to the cemetery 
outside of the town. At the start, the wailing of, the crowd, after 
the demonstrative manner of the East, was terrific; but soon the 
scores of school children began singing “Shall we gather at the River,” 
and all the way to the grave hymn followed hymn, till the funeral 
procession became a triumphal march. 


Is it worth while to send and carry the Gospel to win such 
lives? 


8. The New Nationalism.—India has never been in any 
strict sense a nation. It has had no unity of national life. Of 
recent years there has heen a remarkable growth in this direc- 
tion, manifesting itself in the Swadeshi (‘own country’) 
movement, and in actual sedition and threats of rebellion 
against the British power. ‘India for the Indians” has become 
a popular slogan. The victory of Japan over Russia was one 
of the contributory causes. The partition of the Province of 


at a 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 59 


Bengal was another. The British rulers have met the situation 
in brave and manly fashion. The King himself has displayed 
his fearlessness and trust by visiting India. In still more 
graphic and permanent expression of this confidence, the capi- 
tal has been removed from Calcutta to the heart of the Empire 
at Delhi. Incidentally its removal has punished the seditious 
Bengalis, and rewarded, by the selection of the old Mohamme- 
dan capital, the loyal Moslems. And, on the other hand, the 
persistent cry of the Bengalis has been heeded, and partitioned 
Bengal has been re-united. This will not end the new nation- 
alism, but it is hoped that it will give it a new spirit and per- 
haps transform it into a really patriotic imperialism. 

Two phases of the Church’s relation to all this call for brief 
mention. One is the organization, on December 25, 1905, in 
Carey’s historic library at Serampore, of the National Mis- 
sionary Society of India. Organized, manned and supported 
by the Indian Church itself, it has already taken its place 
among the effective missionary agencies of India. Work is 
carried on in the Panjab, in the United Provinces, in South 
India, in Western India and in a Native State. In rgio it 
had ten workers; one of them ordained, was contributing over 
$2,000, and reported a total of 360 baptized converts.° 

The other and not less notable fact is the union, formed in 
1901, of all but two or three of India’s many Presbyterian 
bodies in the “Presbyterian Church in India.” The sixth Gen- 
eral Assembly, which closed its sessions in Bombay on Janu- 
ary Ist, 1912, reported 14 Presbyteries, grouped in 5 Synods, 
made up of 120 organized churches (41 have settled pastors), 
with 240 ordained ministers (including missionaries), 15,031 
communicants, 49,102 baptized adherents and 4,934 unbaptized, 
making a total Christian community of 69,667 (more than 
half of these in owr missions). While this Assembly controls 
the ecclesiastical relations of all the component bodies, it does 
not affect their financial relations to the home churches, nor 
the relation of the missionaries to their respective Boards or 
Committees. One Presbyterian body, the Dutch Reformed, ~ 


‘has joined with a part of another, the United Free of Scot- 


land, in forming a wider union—one which includes the Con- 
gregationalists—in the United Church of South India. A still 
wider movement is developing, in the shape of the proposed 
Federation of all the Evangelical Churches of India, which it 


5 See Eddy’s “India Awakening,” p. 203. 


60 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


is hoped will be a long step in the direction of the ultimate 
organic union of the Protestant bodies. While the church, 
therefore, as a church, takes no part in the political agitations 
of the country, it is keeping step with all that is good in the 
new nationalism. 


9g. The Forces in the Field and the Promise for the Future. 
—It will be remembered that the “Week of Prayer’ had its 
origin in a call issued, after three days spent in earnest prayer, 
by the Ludhiana Mission in 1858. It is worth while to repro- 
duce that call at this point: 


“WHEREAS, Our spirits have been greatly refreshed by what we 
have heard of the Lord’s dealings with His people in America, and 
further, being convinced from the signs of the times that God has still 
larger blessings for His people and for our ruined world, and that 
He now seems ready and waiting to bestow them as soon as asked; 
therefore, 

“Resolved, That we appoint the second week in January, 1850, be- 
ginning with Monday the &th, as a time of special prayer, and that 
all God’s people, of every name and nation, of every continent and 
island, be cordially and earnestly invited to unite with us in the peti- 
tion that God would now pour out His Spirit upon all flesh, so that 
all the ends of the earth might see His salvation.” 


A part of the answer to the prayers that have gone up in 
response to this call is to be found in the vastly increased 
force now engaged in the work in India. The World Atlas 
of Christian Missions for 1910 gives the following figures: 
Separate societies (a few of them employing no foreigner or 
only one), 122; and foreign missionaries, 4,635, of whom 1,358 
are ordained. Of the entire number about three-fifths are 
women, of whom again two-fifths (or one-fourth of the total) 
are wives of missionaries. The native force engaged in direct 
missionary work is 35,354. To these are to be added hundreds 
of earnest European Christians and thousands of earnest 
Indian Christians, who for at least a part of their time are 
’ directly or indirectly engaged in missionary work. There were 
at the end of 1909 no less than 4,088 organized churches with ° 
522,349 communicants, and 422,135 scholars enrolled in 10,872 
Sabbath-schools. Surely this is no small army that is arrayed 
under the banner of the Cross! 

The promise for the future is to be found partly in the 
presence of the forces just enumerated; partly in the growing 
friendliness of the people and their accessibility to the mis- 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 61 


sionary—due in no small measure to the services rendered in 
the awful stress of famine and plague; partl in the movement 
from among the low castes and out-castes ; partly in the marked 
spirit of inquiry among educated young men; partly in the 
religious unrest and spiritual discontent among many classes— 
as evidenced, for instance, in the numerous modern reform 
movements; partly in the new evangelistic aggressiveness of 
the Indian Church, and partly in the results already accom- 
plished. Many of these results defy tabulation. They lie as 
completely hidden as the waters in the mountain’s heart; but 
they will as surely leap forth one day to refresh the land. Some 
of the visible results are shown in the following figures: 


PROTESTANT NATIVE CHRISTIANS IN INDIA. 


Naar MM ST Sect ick Gra ci ely Sots wie ace bib ans e QI,092 
RT TRMR RMN TTL Ole tae et Sau a Utand Seite bere oe le 138,731 
Re LE ade Pee CIS. So Nae tae at ask ok 224,258 
SEeaMMPET Er er ae ois Lecale Phe ce eOe hae » 417,372 
Pe PeA eG INS SsUOrall occ s.. vio snip oad vo 559,061 
er We ere ea ote ea eA SS aU Sa We so 868,283 
LEE TL os STA a Oe 1,449,950 


The total Christian population (foreigners and _ natives, 
Catholics and Protestants), as given by the census of 1911, is 
3,876,196. While the Hindus increased 5 per cent. between 
1g01 and 1911 and the Mohammedans not quite 7 per cent., 
native Christians increased 32 per cent. (to 3,574,770) and 
Protestant Christians 67 per cent.! 

Finally, the strongest ground for confidence lies, as ever, in 
something yet more reliable and encouraging than numerical 
results. To the question, ‘““What are the prospects in India?” 
the answer still is Judson’s “Bright as the promise of God!” 

But, on the other hand, this well-grounded optimism must 
be backed up by tremendous effort. God still works by means. 
The force in the field is absolutely inadequate to the task | 
set before it. Three and a half millions have been Christian- 
ized: what of the remaining three hundred and fourteen 
millions? A million Christians were added in the last decade ; 
but in the same decade the population increased twenty mill- 
ions. The Madras Decennial Conference of Missionaries 
made no extravagant demand when it asked that their force 
should be quadrupled within ten years. Let the Church in 
America listen to their cry: | 


62 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


“In the name of Christ our common Lord—for the sake 
of those who, lacking Him, are as sheep without a shepherd, 
we ask you to listen to our appeal. You, under God, have 
sent us forth to India. We count it a privilege to give our 
lives to this land. For Christ’s sake and the Gospel’s, 
strengthen our hands, and enable us to press on toward the 
goal of our great calling, when the kingdoms of the world shall 
become the Kingdom of the Lord and of His Christ.” 

The ten years have passed, and the force of missionaries has 
not only not been quadrupled, nor even doubled, it has not 
increased 50 per cent. Is this the measure of our loyalty to 
Jesus Christ? Can we make no better response to the call of 
our brethren? Awakening India is God’s “Forward march!” 
to His Church. Listen, and you will hear His added “Double 
quick !” 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 63 


% 
A 
STATISTICS, 1912 (ALSO TOTALS, 1902) rs = =) 
he thet: uk Asad gas “ye 
Z 4 a Bi ~ 
< o fo) ro) 
ae oe S = as 
Ordained Missionaries ........ 24 16 10 50 45 
fools (3 M.D.) 
Weare MISSIOLAlICS is o0 6 8.8 y f0's sos I hs 5 13 7 
(M.n. ) 
Wives of Missionaries......... 21 17 13 SI 40 
3 SINISE VV OMEN ook ee ee 23 13 13 49 46 
(5 M.D.) (2 M.D.) (1 M.D.) (8M.D. ) 
Native Ministers and Licentiates 109 89 13 ait 133 
Other Native Workers (not in- 
eluding s teachers) 2.0) ee. 85 45 35 165 
Giiureneae. set: be PEO 24 23 8 55 37 
DaM ati easit ate.t ees oes Peg 3,664 2,465 O93 F 0002" erst. O25 
Baptized Adults Not Communi- 
EVE © REO i ape 0 oo Aa ho) hts Sa ae 8118 7,077 23 15,118 
Total Christian Community.... 10,535 15,018 1,425 35,978 *10,500 
Schools of Al! Grades......... 109 99 62 270 173 
PUPUG Were cis care ae on es 5,005 4,00 1,296 10,962 8,449 
PAGAL Alte aes Oo on eke cerks 3 I 4 g 7; 
Dispensaries De PRA areal ua Rank 7 I 6 14 15 
event eee ey fi cok eee abe Fie 62,366 14,233 33,834 110,433 121,686 


*Approximate figure. 


“64 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


MISSIONS IN INDIA. 
PUNJAB MISSION. 


Lanore (1849) : the political centre of the Punjab, 1,225 miles north- 
west of Calcutta. Rev. J. C. Rhea Ewing, D.D., and Mrs. Ewing, Rev. 
H. D. Griswold, Ph.D., and Mrs. Griswold, Rev. Walter J. Clark and 
Mrs. Clark, Rev. D. J. Fleming and Mrs. Fleming, Miss Emily Marston, 
‘M.D., Mr. W. J. McKee and Mrs. McKee, Rev. E. D. Lucas, and Miss 
M. J. R. MacDonald; out-station at Wagah, Miss Clara Thiede. 

SAHARANPUR (1836): 215 miles southeast of Lahore. Rev. H. C. 
Velte and Mrs. Velte, Rev. Christian Borup and Mrs. Borup, Rev. 
M. R. Ahrens and Mrs. Ahrens, Miss Myrtle Ducret and Miss Emma 
Morris. 

'  SapaTHu (1836): in the lower Himalaya Mountains, about 170 miles 
southeast of Lahore. M. B. Carleton, M.D., and Mrs. Carleton. 

LuDHIANA (1846) : near the river Sutlej, about 100 miles southeast of 
‘Lahore. Rev. E. M. Wherry, D.D., and Mrs. Wherry, Rev. E. E. Fife 
-and Mrs. Fife, Rev. A. B. Gould and Mrs. Gould, Miss Sarah M. 
Wherry, Miss Mary C. Helm, Miss Carrie R. Clark, Miss Amanda M. 
‘Kerr, and Miss Mary Riggs Noble, M.D. 

JULLUNDUR (1846): 25 miles north of Ludhiana; capital of Division 
of Punjab by same name. Rev. C. B. Newton, D.D., Rev. Fred J. 
Newton, and Rev. J. H. Orbison, M.D., and Mrs. Orbison, Miss Caroline 
~Newton. 

MussouriE (1874): in Landour, 15 miles east of Dehra. Rev. H. M. 
Andrews and Mrs. Andrews, Miss Alice Mitchell, M.D. 

AMBALA (1848): 170 miles. southeast of Lahore. Rev. F. B. Mc- 
Cuskey and Mrs. McCuskey, Rev. H. A. Whitlock and Mrs. Whitlock, 
“Miss J. R. Carleton, M.D., Miss Mary E. Pratt, Miss Grace Woodside. 

DEHRA (1853): 320 miles southeast of Lahore. Rev. A. P. Kelso 
and Mrs. Kelso, Miss Elma Donaldson, Miss Alice B. Jones and Miss 
Jean E. James. 

HosuyArPurR (1867): about 95 miles east of Lahore. Miss Caro- 
‘line C. Downs and Miss Margaret M. Given, Rev. K. C. Chatterjee, 
DD., and Mrs. Chatterjee. 

FEROZEPUR (1882): 50 miles southeast of Lahore. Rev. C. W. For- 
man, M.D., and Mrs. Forman, Rev. Ray H. Carter, Miss M. M. Allen, 
-M.D., and Miss E. J. Jenks. 

KHANNA: Rev. E. P. Newton and Mrs. Newton. 

Rupar: Rev. U. S. G. Jones and Mrs. Jones. 


NORTH INDIA MISSION. 


ALLAHABAD (1836): capital of Northwest Provinces; at the junction 
‘of the Ganges and the Jumna, 506 miles northwest of Calcutta. Rev. 
J. J. Lucas, D.D., and Mrs. Lucas, Rev. Arthur H. Ewing, Ph.D., and 
Mrs. Ewing, Mr. Sam. Higginbottom and Mrs. Higginbottom, Rev. 
W. E. Weld and Mrs. Weld, Mr. H. T. Avey, Miss J. W. Tracy, 
Miss Marv P. Forman, Dr. Sarah E. Swezey, Miss Mabel E. Griffith, 
“Teachers in Allahabad College—Miss Louise Keach, Mr. Arthur E. 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 65. 


Slater and Mrs. Slater, P. H. Edwards, Ph.D., Messrs. M. Eldredge,. 
S. A. Hunter, William Bambour and E. P. Janvier. 

ETAWAH (1863) : on the Jumna, 150 miles northwest of Allahabad. 
Rev. Edwin R. Fitch. 

FATEHGARH (1844): 160 miles northwest of Allahabad. Rev. C. H. 
Bandy and Mrs. Bandy, Rev. W. L. Hemphill and Mrs. Hemphill, 
Lena B. Ruchti, Miss Emily N. Forman, Miss Mary Lovett, Miss 
Mary E. Robinson, Miss A. Young, M.D. 

FATEHPUR (1853): 70 miles northwest of Allahabad. Rev. Ray C. 
Smith and Mrs. Smith. 

Juansi (1886): 200 miles west of Allahabad; population, 52,000.. 
Rev. William H. Hezlep and Mrs. Hezlep, Miss Bessie Lawton. 

MAINPuRI (1843): on Jumna River, northwest of Allahabad.. 
Rev. W. T. Mitchell and Mrs. Mitchell, Rev. John N. Forman and’ 
Mrs. Forman, Rev. Gulam Masih. 

Morar (1874): capital of the native State of Gwalior, about 215 
miles northwest of Allahabad. 

ETAH (1900): capital of Etah Province, about 240 miles northwest 
of Allahabad. Rev. A. G. McGaw and Mrs. McGaw, Rev. John Moore,. 
Miss M. J. Morrow. 

LANnpDouR (1854) in district of Dehra Dun, some 400 miles northwest 
of Allahabad. Rev. Jas. F. Holcomb and Mrs. Holcomb. 

CAWNPORE (1901): about 120 miles northwest of Allahabad. Rev. 
Moel David. 

SAHARANPUR: Rev. W. F. Johnson D.D., representing the work of 
the Mission in the Theological Seminary, and Miss Mary E. Johnson. 

KascGANny: Rev. J. H. Lawrence and Mrs. Lawrence. 


WESTERN INDIA MISSION. 


KoLHAPUR: 200 miles southeast of Bombay; 45,000 inhabitants; Sta- 
tion begun 1853; taken under care of the Board 1870. Rev. A. W. 
Marshall and Mrs. Marshall, Rev. E. W. Simpson and Mrs. Simpson, 
Miss Esther Patton, Miss A. A. Brown, Rev. D. B. Updegraff, Miss 
Clara L. Seiler, Miss Elizabeth A. Foster, Dr. Victoria E. MacArthur. 

RATNAGIRI (1873) : 82 miles northwest of Kolhapur and 125 south of 
Bombay. Rev A. L. Wiley, D.D., and Mrs. Wiley, Miss Emily T. 
Minor, Miss Amanda M. Jefferson, "Miss Mabel I. Skilton. 

Kopot (1877) : 12 miles north of Kolhapur. Dr. A. S. Wilson and 
Mrs. Wilson, Rev. Henry G. Howard and Mrs. Howard, Rev. L. B. 
Tedford and Mrs. Tedford, Miss Sybil G. Brown. 

SANGLI (1884): 30 miles east of Kolhapur. Rev. Edgar M. Wilson 
and Mrs. Wilson, Miss Grace Enright. Miss Marie L. Gauthey. 

Mrray (1892): 25 miles east of Kolhapur and 6 miles south of 
Sangli. William J. Wanless, M.D., and Mrs. Wanless, Rev. R. C. 
Richardson and Mrs. Richardson, Miss DRE: Patterson, Reve. ee 
Graham and Mrs. Graham, Dr. Chas. E. Vail. 

VENGURLE (1900) : About 70 miles southwest of Kolhapur. Rev. 
W. H. Hannum and Mrs. Hannum, Dr. R. N. Goheen and Mrs. Goheen,. 
Miss M. C. Rebentisch. 

IsLAMPuR: Village Settlement. 


66 


HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


MISSIONARIES IN INDIA, 1833-1912. 


* Died. 


Ahrens, Rev. M. R., 

Ahrens, Mrs., 

Alexander, Rev. J. M., 
D.D 


Alexander, Mrs., 
Alexander, G. H., 
Allen, Maud M.D., 
Allison, Rev. A. B., 
Allison, Mrs., 
Andrews, Rev. H. M., 
Andrews, Mrs. (Miss 

Seas Hutchinson, 
1879-1885), 
Avey, Hi Tz 
Babbitt, Miss Bessie, 
Bacon, "Miss Wipe 
Baily, Miss Mary. E., 
Bandy, Rev. C. H 
Bandy, Mrs., 
Barker, Rev. W. P., 
Barker, Mrs., 

*Barnes, Rev. Geo. O., 
Barnes, Mrs., 

Barrows, Rev. J. V., 

*Beatty, Miss C. L., 
Belly oMiss JS Fai 
*Belz,- Miss C., 

Bergen, Rev. G. S., 
Bergen, Mrs., 

Binford, Miss N., M.D., 
Borup, Rev. C.,; 

Borup, Mrs., 
Braddock, Mrs. E. H., 

Brink, Miss P. A., M.D., 
*Brodhead, Rev. Aug., 
Brodhead, Mrs., 
Brown, Miss A. A., 
Brown, Miss S. G., 
Butler, Miss J. M., 

*Calderwood, Rev. Wm., 

*Calderwood Mrs. L. roms 
*Calderwood, Mrs. E., 
*Caldwell Rev. Joseph, 
*Caldwell, Mrs., 
Caldwell, Mrs., 
Caldwell, Bertha T., 

M.D., 

*Campbell, Rev. Jas. R. 


IQ10- 
I910- 


1865-1903 
1865-1903 
1908-1910 
18904- 

1902-1908 
1902-1908 
1890- 


1890- 

IQIO- 

1888-1891 
1872-1882 
1889-1901 
1894- 

1894- 

1872-1876 
1872-1876 
1855-1861 
1855-1861 
IOQII- 

1862-1870 
1884-1888 
1872-1903 
1865-1883 
1869-1883 
1903-1908 
1903- 

1903- 

1892-1900 
1872-1874 
1858-1878 
1858-1878 
1894- 

1903- 

T&80-1881 
1855-1889 
1855-1859 
1863-1909 
1838-1877 
1838-1839 


1842-1878 - 


1894-1902 
1836-1862 


Figures, Term of Service in the Field. 


*Campbell, Mrs., 
*Campbell, Rev. D. E., 
*Campbell, Mrs., 


Campbell Miss Mary A. 


Campbell, Miss A., 
Campbell, L. M., 
*Carleton, Rev. M. M., 
*Carleton, Mrs., 


Carleton, Mrs., 
Carleton, Marcus B., 
Carleton, Mrs., 
Carleton, Dr. Jessie R., 


Carter, Rev. Ray H., 
Clark, Rev. W. J., 
Clark, Mrs., 
Glark Miss} CRs 
Colman, Miss J. L., 
Condit, Miss Anna M., 
*Craig, James, 
Craig, Mrs., 
*Craig, Miss M. A., 
Davis, Miss °M?.G, 
Donaldson, Miss Elma, 
Downs, Miss C, C., 
Dudgeon, Winfield S., 
Ducret, Miss M., 
Edwards, Preston H., 
*Enders, Rev. E. A,, 
Enders, Mrs., 
Eldredge, Mark, 
Eldredge, Mrs., 
Enright, Miss G. L., 
Ely, Rev. J. B., 
Ely, Mrs., 
*E walt, Miss Marg’t L., 
Ewing, Rev. J. C 
D.D 


Ewing, ‘Mrs., 


“9 


Ewing, Rev. A. H., 
Php 
Ewing, Mrs., 


Ewing, Miss Anna Ks, 
*Ferris, Rev. 3 
Ferris, Mrs., 

Fairchild, Miss L. M., 
Fife, Rev. E. E., 

Fife, Mrs., 


1836-1874 
1850-1857 
1850-1857 
1860-1863 
1874-1878 
1875-1878 
1855-1898 
1855-1881 
1884-1902 


188I- 
1887- 
1886- 
1905- 


— 1893- 


1893- 
1895- 
1890-1904 
1886-1888 
1838-1845 
1838-1846 
1870-1890 
1895-1897 
1889- 
1881- 
IQII- 
IQIO- 
1902- 
1903-1910 
1903-I9QIO 
IQII- 
IQII- 
1902- 
1896-1901 
1896-1901 
1888-1892 


1870- 
1879- 


1890- 
1890- 
IQOT- +s 
1878-1894 
1878-1900 
IQII- 
1903- 
1903- 


THE MISSIONS IN 


Fleming, Rev. D. J., 1904- 
Fleming, Mrs., 1904- 
Fisher, Rev. H., M.D., 1889-1899 
Fisher, Mrs., 1896-1899 
*Forman, Rev. C. 
1848-1804 

*Forman, Mrs. (Miss 

Margaret Newton), 1855-1878 
Forman, Mrs., 1884- 
Forman, Rev. Henry, 1884- 
*Forman, Mrs. (Miss A. 

E. Bird, 1888), 1889-1806 
Forman, Mrs. (Miss C. 

S. Newton), 1808- 
Forman, Rey. 3 

M.D., 1883- 
Forman, Mrs., 1888- 


Forman, Rev. John N., 1887- 


Forman, Mrs. (Miss E 


M. Foote, 1886), 


Forman, Miss Mary P., 
Emily 


Forman, 


Miss 


N., 
Foster, Miss E. A., 


*Freeman, 
*Freeman, 
*Freeman, 
*Fullerton, 
Fullerton, 
Fullerton, 


Mrs. Eliz., 
Rev. 
Mrs., 

Miss 


1877-1888, 


Gauthey, Miss M. L. 
Giddings, Miss C. C. 
Gilbertson, Prof. J. 


Gilbertson, Mrs., 
Giles, Miss Alice L., 
Gillam, Rev. S. M., 


Gillam, Mrs. 


E. Ewing), 


Given, Miss Marg’t M., 


*Goheen, Rev. J. M., 
*Goheen, Mrs., 


Goheen, Mrs. (Miss A. 
B. M’Ginnis, 


Rev. John E., 
Mrs. M. A., 


Re sa 
M., 


72 
bits 
G., 


(Miss C. 


1876), 


Goheen, R. H., M.D., 


Goheen, Mrs. 


K. Ewing), 
Goheen, Mr. John L., 


Goheen, 


Mrs. 


Corbett), 
Gould, Rev. A. B., 


Gould, 
(Miss 


Mrs., 


Helen 


ton, ’93), 


(Miss A. 


(Miss 
IQII- 
1900- 

M.D. 

New- 
1902- 


1890- 
1887- 


1892- 

1897- 

1838-1857 
1838-1849 
1851-1857 
1850-1865 
1850-1866 


1895- 
1907- 
1889-1807 
1889-1904 
1889-1904 
1899-1906 
IQOI- 


IQOI- 
1881- 

1875-1907 
1875-1878 


1879-1907 


1905- 


1905- 
IQII- 


INDIA. 


67 


Graham, Rev. J. P., 1872- 
*Graham, Mrs. (Miss M. 


Bunnell), 1872-1901 
Graham, Mrs. (Miss 
Scheurman), 1899- 
*Green, Willis, M.D., 1842-1843 
Griffiths, Miss Irene, 1879-1890 
Griffiths, Miss M. E., 1910- 
Griswold, Rev. H. D., 
isd «1 Ba 1890- 
Griswold, Mrs., 1890- 
Hannum, Rev. W. H., 1890- 
Hannum, Mrs., 1890- 
Hardie, Miss M. H., 1874-1876 
Hay, Rev. L. G,, 1850-1857 
Hay, Mrs., 1850-1857 
Helm, Miss M. C., 1903- 
Hemphill, Rev. W. L., 1909- 
Hemphill, Mrs., 1909- 
*Henry, Rev. J.-A, 1864-1869 
Henry, Mrs., 1864-1869 
Henry: Reye-T.G., IOTI- 
*Herron, Rev. David, 1855-1886 
*Herron, Mrs. (Miss M. 
L. Browning, 1855), 1857-1863 
*Heron, Mrs., 1868-1874 
Herron, Miss C. B., 1896-1909 
Heston, Dr. Winifred, 10902-1910 
Heyl, Rev. Francis, 1867-1881 
Hezlep, Rev. W. H., IQII- 
Hezlep, Mrs., IQII- 
Higginbottom, Mr. S.,_ 1903- 
Higginbottom, Mrs., 1904- 
Hodge, Rev. A. A., 1848-1850 
Hodge, Mrs., 1848-1850 
Holcomb, Rev. J. F., 1870- 
Holcomb, Mrs., 1870- 
Howard, Rev. H. G,, 1907- 
Howard, Mrs. (Miss 
Graham), 1900- 
‘Hulkeheve: J.J.) 1872-1881 
Hull, Mrs., 1872-1801 
Hutchison, Miss S., 188s- 1894 
*Hyde, Rev. J. N., 1892-1912 
*Inglis, Rev. T. E., 1884-1892 
Inglis, Mrs., 1884-1892 
Irving, Rev. David, 1846-1849 
‘Irving, Mrs., 1846-1849 
Irwin, Rev. J. M., 1890-1908 
Irwin, Mrs., 1895-1908 
Irwin, Miss Rachel, 1890-1898 
James, Miss J. E., 1906- 
Jamieson, Rev. J. M., 1836-1856 
*Jamieson, Mrs. R 1836-1845 


68 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


Jamieson, Mrs. E. McL. 1848-1856 
*Janvier, Rev. Levi, 1841-1864 
*Janvier, Mrs., 1841-1854 
*Janvier, Mrs. (Mrs. M. 

R. Porter, 1849), 1856-1875 

Janvier, Rev. C. A. R., 1887-1901 


Janvier, Mrs., 1887-1901 
Jefferson, Miss A. M., 1801- 
Jenks, Miss J. E., 1QOI- 
*Johnson, Rev. A. O., 1855-1857 
*Johnson, Mrs., 1855-1857 


Johnson, Rev. William 
| eee BB 

*Johnson, Mrs., 

Johnson, Miss Bertha, 


1860- 
1860-1888 
1902-1909 


Johnson, Miss M. E.,  1891- 

Johnson, Rev. F. O., 1897-1904 
Johnson, Mrs., 1897-1904 
Johnson, Miss J. C., IQOI-1905 


*Jolly, Mr. John, 1891-’94; ’97-1906 


Jolly, Mrs., 1891-94 ; ’97-1906 
Jones, Rev. U. S.G, = 1888- 
Jones, Mrs., 1893- 
Jones, Miss Alice B., 1808- 
Keach, Miss L, M., IQII- 
*Kellogg, Rev. oe ELA 

1865-1876 ; 1892-1899 
*Kellogg, Mrs., 1865-1876 
Kellogg, Mrs.. 1892-1899 
Kellogg, Rev. E. H., 1907-1908 
Kellogg, Mrs., 1907-1908 
Kelso, Rev. A. i. 1869- 
Kelso, Mrs., 18609- 
Kernen, Rev. HAS 1904-1908 
Kernen, Mrs., 1904-1908 
Kerr, Miss A. M., 1905- 
Lawrence, Rev. J. H., I901- 
Lawrence, Mrs., IQOI- 
Lawson, Miss Mary B., 1887. 1888 
Lawton, Miss B. M., 1909- 
*Leavitt, Rev. E. H. 1855-1857 
Lovett, Miss M., IQII- 
*Lowenthal, Rev. L., 1855-1864 
Lowrie, Rev. John C., 1833-1836 
*Lowrie, Mrs. Louisa A., 1833-1833 
Lucas, Rev. -J._J.,-D.D),'1870- 
Lucas, Mrs.( Miss Sly), 1871- 
Lucas, Rev. E. D., 1907- 


Lucas, Mrs. (Miss N. S. 
Ewin 2), IOII- 
MacDonald, Miss M. J. 


R., 
Marshall, Rev. A. W., 


Marshall) Mist? =8D) 
(Miss M. J. Stewart) 1900- 


Marston, Emily, M.D., 1891- 
Martin, Rev. E. D., 1893-1902 
Martin, Mrs. (Miss C. 
Hutchison), 1891-1901 
Mattison, Rev. C. H., 1901-1909 
Mattison, Mrs. (Miss 
Lincoln), IQOI-1900 


McArthur, Dr. Victoria, 1899- 


McAuley, Rev. W. H., 1840-1851 
McAuley, Mrs., 1840-1851 
McComb, Rev. Jas. M., 1882-1808 
McComb, Mrs., 1882-18908 
McCuskey, Rev. F. B., 1902- 
McCuskey, Mrs., 1902- 
‘McEwen, Rev. James, 1836-1838 
. McEwen, Mrs., 1836-1838 
McGaughey, Miss H., 1808-1904 
McGaw, Rev. A. G, = 1894- 
McGaw, Mrs., 1804- 
McKee, W. J., 1900- 
McKee, Mrs., 1909- 
*McMullin, Rev. R. M., 1856-1857 
*McMullin, Mrs., 1856-1857 
Meek, Rev. C. C., 1895-1806 
Millar, Mrs. S. J., 1873-1877 
Minor, Miss E. T., 1891- 
Mitchell, Dr. Alice, 1895- 
Mitchell, Rev. W. T., 1806- 
Mitchell, Mrs., 1806- 
Moore, Rev. A. W., IQII- 
‘Morris, Rees, 1838-1845 
“Morris, Mrs., 1838-1845 
Morris, Miss Emma,  1892- 


Morrison, Rev. John H. 1837-1881 
Morrison, Mrs. Anna M. 1837-1838 
Morrison, Mrs. Isabella, 1839-1843 
Morrison, Mrs. Anna _ 1846-1860 
Morrison, Mrs. E. A., 1870-1888 
Morrison, Rev. W. J. P. , 1865-1904 
*Morrison, Mrs. (Miss 
Thackwell, 1877-), 1879-1888 
*Morrison, Mrs. (Miss 
Geisinger, 1882), 1892-1808 
1865-1876 
1883-1907 


“Si * 43 ee 5 


Morrison, Miss H., 

Morrison, Rev. Robt., 

Morrison, Mrs. (Miss 
Annie Heron, ’79-), 1884-1907 


Morrow, Miss M. J.,  1800- 

Munnis, Rey. R. M., 1846-1861 
Munnis, Mrs., 1851-1861 
*Myers, Rev. J. H., 1865-1869 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. 


*Myers, Mrs., 

Nelson, Miss J. A., 
*Newton, Rev. John, 
*Newton, Mrs. Elizab’th, 
*Newton, Mrs., 
*Newton, Rev. Jno., Jr., 


Newton, Mrs., 1861-’82; 
Newton, Rev. C, B., 
D.D 


* 


Newton, Mrs. (Miss M. 
B. Thompson, ’69), 
*Newton, Mrs. (Miss J. 
F. Dunlap, 1889), 
‘*Newton, Rev. ~F. J., 
M.D., 
*Newton, Mrs., 
Newton, Rev. E. P., 
Newton, Mrs., 

Newton, Rev. Fred. J., 
Newton, Miss Caroline, 
Noble, Dr. Mary R., 
Norris, Dr. Marg’t R., 
*Orbison, Rev. J. H., 
*Orbison, Mrs. Agnes C., 
Orbison, Mrs., 
Orbison, Rev... J... -H., 


Orbison, Mrs., 
Orbison, Miss Agnes L., 
*Owen, Rev. Joseph, 

*Owen, Mrs. Augusta M. 
Owen, Mrs., 
Patterson, Miss D. E., 
Patton, Miss E. E., 
Pendleton, Miss E. M., 
Perley, Miss F., 
Pollock, Rev. Geo. W., 
Pollock, Mrs., 

*Porter, Rev. Joseph, 

*Porter, Mrs., 

Pratt, Miss M. E., 
Prentiss, Miss E., 

- Rankin, Rev. J. C., 
Rankin, Mrs., 
Rebentisch, Miss M. C., 

*Reed, Rev. William, 
Reed, Mrs., 

Rice, Rev. C. H., 
Richardson, Rev. R. C., 
Richardson, Mrs., 
Robinson, Miss M. E., 
Rogers, Rev. Wm. S., 


1865-1875 
1871-1878 
1835-18901 
1835-1857 
1866-1893 


1860-1880 
1888-1905 


1867- 
1871-1897 
1900-1905 


1870-IQII 
1870-1907 
1873- 
1875- 
1903- 
IQII- 
1903- 
1900-1906 
1850-1869 
1853-1855 
1859-1860 


1886- 
1886- 
1889-1896 
1840-1870 
1844-1864 
1867-1870 
1902- 
1880- 
1882-1889 
1879-1882 
1881-1887 
1881-1887 
1836-1853 
1836-1842 
1872- 
1903-1908 
1840-1848 
1840-1848 
1906- 
1833-1834 
1833-1834 
IQII- 
IQOI- 
190I- 
1907- 
1836-1843 


69 


Rogers, Mrs., 1836-1843 
Rogers, Miss M. E., 1899-1906 
*“Ruchti; Miss L. B., 1910- 
*Rudolph, Rev. A., 1846-1888 
*Rudolph, Mrs., 1846-1849 
*Rudolph, Mrs., 1851-1884 
Savage, Miss H. A., 1888-1904 
Sayresncyvaleb, 1863-1870 
Sayre, Mrs., 1863-1870 
*Scott, Rev. J. L, 
1838-1867 ; 1877-1880 
SocotenMirs2Go Mo 1838-1848 


*SCOLU RIV TS: patting 


1853; 1860-1867; 1877-1802 


Scott, Miss Anna E., 1874-1892 
Seeley, Rev. A. H., 1846-1854 
*Seeley, Mrs., 1846-1853 
‘Seeley, Rev. G. A,, 1870-1887 
Seeley, Mrs., 1879-1887 
Seeley, Miss E. J., 1879-1887 
Seiler, Rev. G. W., 1870-1903 
Seiler, Mrs., 1881-1903 
Seiler, Miss C. L.,, 1909- 


*Seward, Sara C., M.D., 1873-18901 


Shaw, Rev. H. W., 1850-1855 
Shaw, Mrs., 1850-1855 
Sherman, Miss J., 1889-1899 


Simonson, Rev. G. H., 1893-1900 


Simpson, Rev. E. W., 1902- 
Simpson, Mrs., 1905- 
Skilton, Miss M. L., 1907- 
Slater, Mr. A.*E., 1910- 
Slater, Mrs., IQI0- 
Smith, Rev. Ray C., 1900- 
Smith, Mrs., 1900- 
«Stebbins, Mrs. A. M., 1893-1905 


1888-1894 
1902-1906 
1902-1906 
1910- 


Symes, Miss Mary L., 
Symington, Rev. J. S., 
Symington, Mrs., 
Swezey, Dr. Sarah E., 
Tedford, Rev. L. B., 
1880-1906; I9I10- 
Tedford, Mrs., 
1880-1906; I9I0- 
Templin, Dr. Emma L., 1893-1804 
Thackwell, Rev. Reese, 
PDs 1859-1911 
*Thackwell, Mrs., 1859-1873 
Thackwell, Mrs. (Miss 
S. Morrison, 1869), 1875-1911 


Thiede, Miss Clara, 1873- 
Thomson, Miss M. J., 1899-1904 
Tracy, Rev. Thomas, 1869-1904 


7O HISTORICAL SKETCH OF 


Tracy, Mrs. (Miss N. *Wilder, Miss Grace E., 1887-1911 
Dickey), 1870-1904 Wilder, R. P., 1892-1895 
Tracy, Miss J. W., 1808- Wilder, Mrs., 1892-1895 
Tracy, Rev. Robt. D., 1901-1912 Wiley, Rev. A.,L., 1899- 
*Ullman, Rev. J. F.,' 1848-1806 Wiley, Mrs., 1899- 
*Ullman, Mrs., 1848-1890 *Williams, Rev. R. E., 1852-1861 
Updegraff, Rev. D. B., 1907- Williamson, Miss C. J., | 
Vail, Charles E., M.D., 1909- 1882-1884; 1895-18908 
Vanderveer, Miss Jane, 1840-1846 Williamson, J. Rutter, 
Velte, Rev. H. C., 1882- M.D., 1902-1903 
Velte, Mrs., 1892- Wilson, Rev. H. R., 1838-1846 
Vrooman, Dr. Sarah,  I901I- Wilson, Mrs., 1838-1846 
‘Walsh, Rev. J: J; 1843-1873 Wilson, Rev. James, 1838-1851 
Walsh, Mrs., 1843-1873 Wilson, Mrs., 1838-1851 


Walsh, Miss Marian, 1864-1866 *Wilson, Miss M. N., 1873-1870 
*Walsh, Miss Emma, 1868-1869 Wilson, Rev. Edgar M., 1894- 


Walsh, Miss Lizzie, 1870-1882 Wilson, Mrs., 1897- 
Wanless, W. J., M.D., 1889- Wilson, Alex. S., M.D., 1896- 
*Wanless, Mrs., 1889-1906 Wilson, Mrs., 18096- 
Wanless, Mrs., 1904- Winter, Dr. Sarah E., 1893-1895 
*Warren, Rev. J., *Woodside, Rev. J. S.,. 1848-1900 

1838-1854; 1873-1877, *Woodside, Mrs., 1848-1888 
*Warren, Mrs., 1838-1854 *Woodside, Mrs. (Mrs. 
*Warren, Mrs., 1873-1901 Leavitt, 1856), 1890-1909 
Weld, Rev. W. E., IQIO- *Woodside, Miss J., 1868-1887 
Weld, Mrs., IQIO- Woodside, Miss G. D., 1903- 
Wherry, Rev. E. M., Wray, Rev. John, 1841-1840 

DDE 1867-1889; 1898- "Wray, Mrs., 1841-1849 

Wherry, Mrs., *Wyckoff, Rev. B. D., 

1867-1889 ; 1808- 1860-1875 ; 1883-1806 
Wherry, Miss S. M., 1879- Wyckoff, Mrs., 
Whitlock, Rev. H. A., 1906- 1860-1875; 1883-1806 
Whitlock, Mrs., 1907- Wynkoop, Rev. T. S., 1868-1877 


*Wilder, Rev. R. G., 1870-1876 Young, Dr. Annie, 1906- 
*Wilder, Mrs., 1870-76; 1887-1910 


THE MISSIONS IN INDIA. ie yi 


BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 


Among India’s Students. Robert P. Wilder. 

Asiatic Studies. Sir Alfred Lyall. 2 vols. 1899. 

Bits About India. Helen H. Holcomb. $1.00. 

Brahmoism: a History of Reformed Hindtiism. R. C. Bose. 

Buddhism: in its Connection with Brahmanism and Hinduism. Sir 
Monier Williams. 

Conversion of India. George Smith. $1.50. 

Everyday Life in India. Rev. A. D. Rowe. $1.50. 

From Darkness to Light (Telegu Awakening). J. E. Clough. 

Hinduism: Past and Present. Rev. J. Murray Mitchell, LL.D. $1.60. 

History of A. P. Missions in India. Rev. J. Newton. $1.00. 

History of India for High Schools. C. F. de la Fosse, M.A. 

History of Protestant Missions in India. Julius Richter. 1908. $2.50. 

India and Indian Missions. Alexander Duff, D.D. 

A Brief History of the Indian Peoples. Sir W. W. Hunter. 10903. 90 
cents. 

Brahmanism and Hinduism, 1887. Sir Monier Williams. $4.50. 

Christ and the Eastern Soul. Charles Cuthbert Hall. 1909. $1.25. 

India Awakening. Sherwood Eddy. Ig1II. 50 cents. 

India: Its Administration and Progress. Sir John Strachey. 1o11. 

India: Its History, Darkness and Dawn. Rev. W. St. Clair Tisdall. 

India Missions, Semi-Centennial Celebration, 1884. 

Indian Buddhism. T. W. Rhys Davids. 

Indian Missions. Sir Bartle Frere. 

Indian Mutiny. Alexander Duff, D.D. ; 

India’s Problem: Krishna or Christ. John P. Jones, D.D. $1.50. 

Life by the Ganges. Mrs. Mullens. 8&0 cents. 

Life in India. John W. Dulles, D.D: $1.00. 

Life of Alexander Duff. G. Smith. 1900. $2.00. 

Life and Times of Carey, Marshman and Ward. 

Life of William C. Burns. Islay Burns. 

Lux Christi. Mrs. C. A. Mason. 50 cents. 

Martyrs of the Mutiny. 50 cents. 

Memoirs of John Scudder. $1.25. 

Memoirs of Rev. Joseph Owen, D.D. J. C. Moffatt. 

Men of Might in Indian Missions. Helen H. Holcomb. 

Missionary Life Among the Villages of India. T. J. Scott. 80 cents. 

Modern India and the Indians. Sir Monier Williams. 14. 

Modern Hinduism. W. J. Wilkins. 1900. Ios 6d. . 

Our Sisters in India. Rev. E. Storrow. $1.25. 

Pandita Ramabai. Helen S. Dyer. 1900. $1.25. 

Peoples and Problems of India. Sir T. W. Holderness. 1911. 50 cents. 

Religions of India. F. Max Miller. t1os 6d. 

Report of the World Missionary Conference of 1910. 

The Christian Conquest of India. J. M. Thoburn. 1906. 50 cents. 

The Desire of India. S. K. Datta. 10908. 64 cents. 

The High Caste Hindu Woman. Pandita Ramabai. 75 cents. 

The Kingdom in India. Jacob Chamberlain. 10908. $1.50. 

Two Years in Upper India. Rev. John C. Lowrie. $1.50. 

Village Work in India. Rev. N. Russell. $1.00. 

Within the Pardah. Mrs. Armstrong Hopkins. 1878. $1.25. 

~Wrongs of Indian Womanhood. Mrs. M. B. Fuller. $1.25. 


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